Song of Myself Essay Example for Free

Song of Myself Essay ‘Song of Myself’ is one of the most representative poems of Walt Whitman. It reveals what Walt Whitman is and what he stands for. In this poem, the poet discovers himself and gives the boldest expression to his true and ever expanding poetic-self defying all the limitations. In fact, it is a voyage of the self into the realms of imagination in an attempt to find its true nature. The poem celebrates his joy of finding his limitless and unbounded self identifying with the universal spirit. It is a journey from the individual self to the universal self. The poet expresses himself joyfully with the ‘original energy of nature which is unchecked and in exhaustive. The opening lines prepare the readers for an unprecedented flight of imagination. â€Å"He says, I CELEBRATE myself, and sing myself, And what I assume you shall assume, For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you. † (Section-1) Whitman directly expresses the universality of the self and indirectly suggests the equality of all. He expresses the true nature of the self. He feels it is common to all and everyone has the same self. Everyone in the world has an equal claim on this world. He identifies his physical self and makes a distinction between the physical self of the poet and universal self of the poet. In the third stanza he says, †¦. form’d from this soil, this air, Born here of parents born here from parents the same, and their parents the same, I, now thirty-seven years old in perfect health begin, Hoping to cease not till death. (Section-1) The identity of the poet is revealed here. He was born to his parents and he was thirty seven years old enjoying robust health. These lines throw light on the personal life of the author. With this identity he starts his journey into the realms of freedom and equality where he finds himself perfectly in tune with the universe. He enjoys himself in his physical self and feels contented. He has neither worries nor any anxieties. He does not consider this life as preparation for the next. He is absolutely happy about his life and happy about what he is. The mention of soil and air clearly reveal that he is conscious of the world where he has come from. The poet is very happy with this beautiful world. The fresh air breathes new spirit in him. He identifies himself with nature and he wants to be as close to nature. He does not like anything to come in between himself and nature. He wants to be honest with nature. Here, we find the poet equating nakedness with honesty. He says, I will go to the bank by the wood and become undisguised and naked, I am mad for it to be in contact with me. (Section-2) He rejoices himself being close to nature. The proximity with nature gives him vitality and strength. He totally identifies himself with the soil, water and air. He says, My respiration and inspiration, the beating of my heart, the passing of blood and air through my lungs, The sniff of green leaves and dry leaves, and of the shore. (Section-2) The poet celebrates himself for being a part of such wonderful nature. He is neither worried nor concerned about any thing that may happen in future. He is very much concerned with the present. He is down to the earth practical, and at the same time, he expresses the wisdom of living in the present instead of thinking about future and worrying about the past. He expresses his happiness saying, â€Å"I am satisfied—I see, dance, laugh, and sing. † He has no complaints about the present and his presence in this world. He says he is not blind to the problems and evil in this world. But he does not allow them to spoil his happiness and his celebration. His reference to â€Å"myself† refers to his soul. It is the essence of his personality. He identifies the soul of the speaker is the soul in everyone. It is the universal self. It is quite untouched by the sufferings of the world. In fact, Whitman identifies the speaker of the poem with the birth of his poetic self. The newly born poet finds himself joyful and happy. The poet mentions that the spirit of the poet is a brother of god. He says, â€Å"And I know that the hand of God is the promise of my own, And I know that the spirit of God is the brother of my own, And that all the men ever born are also my brothers, and the women and my sisters and lovers, And that a kelson of the creation is love. † (Section-5) Whitman says the new self of the poet identifies itself with everything in nature. It identifies itself with a blade of grass. He feels the grass represents the same what a man represents. The awakened self of the poet strikes a common cord with the creative forces of the world. He says: A child said What is the grass? fetching it to me with full hands, How could I answer the child? I do not know what it is anymore than he. The grass stands as symbol for equality. It also represents the creative spirit in the world. He then goes on listing the things he has seen in American life, the joys, the worries, the celebration of the human race and celebration of everyday life. He describes the people he has met on his travels. He accepts them all without any complaints against them. Here, the poet shows his maturity of understanding and his modesty in accepting everything that life offers him. He does not question anything nor suspect any one. He describes himself as a lover of life. He says in the section 13 of the poem, he is a caresser of life wherever moving, backward as well as forward sluing. Absorbing all to myself and for this song. (Section-13) He strikes a beautiful comparison between his nature and the grass. He says: This is the grass that grows wherever the land is and the water is, this the common air that bathes the globe. As the grass grows every where he also respects everything and everyone in this world. He says, I play not marches for accepted victors only, I play marches for conquerd and slain persons, and I will not have a single person slighted or left away. (Section-18) Thus, the speaker in the poem, the new born poet shows a compassionate spirit and rejoices himself. The intensity in the search for the true meaning increases as the poem progresses. He asks in a philosophical tone, â€Å"Who goes there? Hankering, gross, mystical, nude: How is it I extract strength from the beef I eat? What is a man anyhow? What am I? What are you? † He is not dazzled by these questions nor withdraws himself to silence. He expresses himself and answers the questions he has raised. He says, In all people I see myself, none more and not one a barley-corn less, And the good or bad I say of myself I say of them. (Section-20) He also adds saying, I am the poet of the Body and I am the poet of the Soul, the pleasures of heaven are with me and pains of hell are with me. (Section-21) He rightly expresses that his poetry is a combination of both body and soul. There is something for the soul and there is something for the body. He mixes these things as naturally as a forest mixes different trees. His poetry is not like a cultivated garden. It is like a jungle. It is full of nature’s bounty. It is full of variety and it is vast. Just like the poem, the poet’s self grows to be the universal self and identifies itself with multitude of people and the creation in the world. The poet’s self grows beyond any limits and reaches the borders of vast expanses. The true self of the poet is no different from the vast and expanding world of his poetry. He grows as a man; his self grows to be a universal self and his soul ripens with wisdom and understanding, having made the entire tumultuous journey. He makes it clear that his poetic voice and his realization of his true self are not two different things. They are like the twins. He says, â€Å"My voice goes after what my eyes cannot reach, With the twirl of my tongue I encompass world and volumes of worlds. Speech is the twin of my vision, it is unequal to measure itself, It provokes me forever, it says sarcastically, Walt you contain enough, why dont you let it out then? † (section-25) The poet’s identity of his voice with his poetic vision is a major leap in the journey. He realizes that the two senses reveal the same reality that he finds. He goes on exploring further and he says, I believe a leaf of grass is no less than the journey work of the stars. (Section-31) Here, he realizes the some living force behind all the things in the world which makes them equal. He feels he is perfectly at home with everything in the world. He has no complaints nor any plans for improvement. He enjoys the sight of animals which are placid and self-contained. They are in absolute peace. He wants to live with them in that condition. He spends his time looking at them for a long time. He denounces the worries and frustrations of people as meaningless. The poet realizes the uniqueness of this realization and treats it with all the specialty and respect it commands. In the section 39 he begins speaking about himself in the third person. It is an indirect reference to what he has realized in the course of his journey. In that state of mind, wherever the poet goes he is respected and admired. He becomes the most liked person. He says, Wherever he goes men and women accept and desire him, They desire he should like them, touch them, speak to them, stay with them. He assumes the role of a guide and wants to lead the people with his realization. He says, â€Å"I launch all men and women forward with me into the Unknown. † Thus, the poet finds himself in a new role after the journey. He feels the realization he has, made him unique and this experience will be useful to the people who need guidance amid their turbulent lives.

The Knot Essay Example for Free

The Knot Essay According to Sahlman, the success of entrepreneurial ventures, such as The Knot, is dependent on four critical success factors, namely the people, the opportunity, the deal and the context. Each of these factors is dynamic and the entrepreneur must constantly reevaluate and adjust the four factors to create value. People The category people include the key players of the entrepreneurial venture. Within this category, the strengths and weaknesses and the experience of the people involved is critical. The entrepreneur has to determine if something is missing in the team, thus if people should be added or replaced. The Knot’s management team consists of four ex New York University’s Film School students. All of them are experienced entrepreneurs. First, Liu and Roney are co-founders of the CD-ROM development company RunTime Inc. Pervious, Liu was an experienced manager and Roney spent six years as creative director and editor. Second, Wolfson and Fassino are founders of the Digital Media Division for Margeotes Fertitta + Partners. Before, Wolfson was founder of a creative production company and Fassino has experience in the advertising industry. The two different companies successfully collaborated at the Sotheby’s project. The four partners emphasize the potential of their collective experience and know-how, including management, advertising, the creative industry and production. They found Element Studios in 1995 to capitalize their abilities. After the acquisition of Bridal Search, Russ and Becky Casenhiser were added to the management team. Both of them were successful entrepreneurs as well. Russ developed the industry’s largest, searchable database and Becky procured and maintained relationships with all the manufacturers. Especially their experience in retail was valuable when the business model developed further. After all, the team of The Knot consists of capable people with experience in multiple disciplines who complement each other. However, when entering the gift registry business, in which inventory management and delivery arrangements would be crucial, there is a need for people with experience in logistics. Experienced people could be recruited as employees or entrepreneurs in this industry could be added to the management team. The opportunity The characteristics of the opportunity are critical for the success of the venture as well as for the way the entrepreneur should respond to a certain opportunity. Characteristics of the opportunity include the nature and the possibility to replicate by competitors. The task of the entrepreneur is to determine if the opportunity should be exploited immediately and to set eventually milestones to assess the success of the project. Element was founded with the aim to realize a successful media business, however, there was no focus on a certain opportunity before the company was founded. The management team started looking for an opportunity and was attracted by the high advertising revenue in the wedding industry. They found an opportunity in the lack of a fresh competitor and the possibility to differentiate by building an online business foundation. Besides the possibility to differentiate, the online business foundation required a lower investment. Thus, the initial business model consisted of creating an online medium that attracts visitors and generates advertising revenue. The Knot’s team formulated their initial goals as ‘becoming a full-service online wedding resource and a recognizable brand in the industry’. The initial investment is relatively low compared to the potential revenue with an advertising market of $168 million and a limited number of competitors. Since the idea is easy to copy by potential competitors, it was important to exploit the idea immediately to gain first mover advantage. The initial business model was complemented in stages. With the launch of The Knot’s own web site in May 1997, they entered the retail market via The Knot Gift Shop. Their first venture in retail started with the sale of cameras, but other products were quickly added. In June 2007, after the acquisition of Bridal Search, The Knot could offer the only comprehensive online database of wedding dresses to its customers. As a result, advertising revenue increased. After successful development of The Knot’s current business activities, Liu focused on the bridal registry business. This business has enormous potential since it represents half of all wedding-related revenue. The process of the development of a comprehensive list of gifts by soon-to-be-weds that had to be purchased by wedding guests was ready for an online solution. Moreover, characteristics of the registry business encompassed the opportunity to efficiently organize delivery arrangements with manufacturers. In turn, this would allow The Knot to maintain more control over its brand, pricing and merchandising. Since the listing of products and services did not require inventory to be held, this would enable effective management of The Knot’s balance sheet. Although the model for gift registry is already in a later stage of development, it is important to exploit immediately since competitors have had capital investments already. Deals The opportunity has to be structured by different deals. These deals include considerations such as incentives and contingencies and the choice between financing instruments and financers. The entrepreneur should aim to motivate all players according to their input and create stakeholders that increase the probability of success. By joining the Greenhouse program of American Online (AOL), The Knot aimed to garner a substantial proportion of the online wedding consumer market. Besides initial investments, AOL could be seen as a strategic partner with a developing online consumer base. AOL invested in return for warrants up to 45% of The Knot’s equity, 20% of the revenue from advertising on the AOL property and a percentage of advertising revenue from The Knot’s own web site. In addition, Bridal Search was acquired for 10. 000 shares of common stock, while they had the opportunity to earn up to an additional 32. 857 shares. This potential bonus could be referred to as an extra motivation to perform. The context Contextual issues can change the nature of the opportunity. Issues include current and potential competitors, the government and economic conditions and trends. The entrepreneur should attempt to forecast contextual movements and benefit from these changes. The competitive context of The Knot before the exploitation of the opportunity was characterized by three magazines, with an average of 40 years of experience in the industry and strong relationships with advertiser. There was a change that the deeply entrenched magazines would renounce moving to the internet since they feared cannibalization of their existing businesses. This changed the nature of the opportunity in a way that it was an extra motivation to launch an online business. The Knot’s performance To reach their goals, The Knot put effort to optimize their services and build brand awareness. First, the provision of value-added services to users, such as information about travelling, wedding planning and fashion, resulted in development of a strong user community. Further, from the early beginning, The Knot targeted potential partners to build awareness of the brand, resulting in The Knot’s Registry Partner Program with nationwide key players. The first offline brand building effort was implemented in August 2007 by signing a three-book deal with Bantam Doubleday. In addition, they agreed to co-produce a television program entitled Wedding for the Real World to promote online services and books. The usefulness of performance metrics significantly differs for startups in comparison with established companies. Although startups are diverse, they share some common characteristics that affect the use of financial metrics. To illustrate, revenues are small or non-existing and the establishment of a business generally result in significant operating losses. Therefore, financial metrics such as the income statement, balance sheet, and the statement of cash flows provide little usable information. However, the information in these financial metrics regarding predicted years could be used to calculated performance measures, such as return on investment (ROI) and return on assets (ROA). Instead, to gauge the performance of a startup company like The Knot’s, other financial and non-financial metrics are used. First, it is important to measure the ability of the company to generate revenue at an early stage. The Knot managed to generate significant revenue at an early stage. After their initial appearance on AOL, The Knot generated over $ 25. 000 of advertising revenue. Later, after the acquisition of Bridal Search, three deals representing $ 750. 000 in advertising revenue were signed. Second, the period that a company can survive without raising additional capital is an useful measure for startups. The ‘burn rate’ is referred to as the money spend by a company each month. The number of months that a company has to raise additional capital is calculated by dividing the amount of cash reserves by the burn rate. Since The Knot only has enough money to coffer its operation for three months by November 1997, the need to raise capital is very urgent. This can be explained by their initial focus on gaining market share instead of becoming profitable. This strategy is particularly common for ‘dot-com’ companies. Besides financial metrics, non-financial metrics are important to measure the performance of startups. Non-financial metrics for e-commerce companies include for instance retained customers. However, for the wedding industry, this metrics are not applicable since customers are not expected to return after their first number of product and service purchases. Other measures that are applicable to The Knot are web metrics such as total page views and total unique visitors. Concerning this measures, The Knot performed above expectance with an increase in unique visitors of their AOL page from 65. 000 to 260. 000 in seven months. In addition, after launching their own Web site, they realized 2. 7 million page views. To conclude, The Knot has managed to gain attention at an early stage from potential customers, this resulted in advertising income. The company has a relatively high burn rate as compared with their current liabilities; this leads to an urgent need for additional capital investors since they can coffer their operating expenses for just three months. The need for additional funding As predicted by the life-cycle of a VC fund, which predicts focus on investment in the first four to five years, The Knot needs further funding in their current phase. First, there is a need for cash to invest in the development of The Knot brand and build out the technological infrastructure to capitalize Knot’s current momentum in the race for scale economies. On a more practical level, capital is needed to fund the payroll and pay for day-to-day operating expenses. Second, The Knot needs funding to develop the gift registry business. The need for quick funding rose due to developments on the competitive front. The Knot’s current business activities were targeted by competition form online businesses that had recently launched web sites. Furthermore, Internet Gift Registries, which would be a competitor of The Knot after entering the gift registry business, had recently received funding from a private investor. Financial advisors agreed that The Knot is an attractive investment and recommended The Knot’s management team to raise as much capital as possible. After all, the management team and its financial advisors agreed that The Knot would seek $10 million in exchange for Series B Convertible Preferred Stock. This proceeds will be used to develop its registry service and to accelerate marketing and promotion of its online services. Valuation of the company In order to give a fair estimate of the value of The Knot, a combination of both the NPV method and the Market approach method is used. The use of the NPV method is possible because this is not a completely new company and it has a track record to evaluate. Also, in the business plan The Knot presented, they give extensive predictions for future performance and cash flows. The NPV method alone would not be enough since these numbers are still only a prediction. Even though these predictions were made by an external company, helping to make them more reliable and independent than when The Knot had made them, they are still not hard numbers. Combining the results of the NPV with a comprehensive Market analysis, in which both market potential will be measured and comparable companies, the multiples, will be analyzed, will give an accurate estimate of the value of The Knot. Using only the market approach would also not suffice since the relatively new nature of the business (registry online) makes it hard to find other companies to effectively compare with The Knot. The asset valuation approach is not used because, given the nature of internet companies, there would be little tangible assets to value. Since intangible assets are a lot harder to value this would not give an accurate value for The Knot (2). The multiplication method is not used because The Knot is currently still not at break-even, which makes it near impossible to calculate. Also, since the prediction show a very sharp estimated increase in revenues after the capital injection, the multiplication method could be very far off the true value of the firm and ergo not be a reliable method to determine the value (2). To conclude, the average between the NPV method and the market approach will give the most reliable value estimate for The Knot. Potential investors The Knot is looking for an investment of $10 million to develop brand image and develop their registry business. However, the urgent need for investment due to the forecasted ‘fume’ in January 1998 needs to be taken into account. This leads to disqualification of the strategic partnership option because The Knot would be in a very week place at the negotiation table because of time pressure. Besides this, a partner for a new business venture would probably not be hard to find, but finding a partner who is willing to pay for the operational cost for the other activities of The Knot as well, would seem much more unlikely. Finally, forming partnership takes time and time is something The Knot does not have. Choosing between angel investors and VC’s comes down to the nature of these investment entities. Angel investors are usually less risk averse but they tend to focus on invest in new start-ups and their investments are relatively lower compared to a VC (1). A VC usually invests in a later point of the start up and invests larger sums of money (1). Looking at these characteristics of both these entities, it seems clear that going for a VC would be the best option. If the valuation of The Knot comes out favorably, it would cover the more risk averse nature of the VC and justify a sizable investment of 10 million. There are drawbacks of using a VC, namely they most likely will want to exercise a lot of control over The Knot’s business, more so than angel investors. However, engagement of the VC can have a positive affect on the development of capabilities as well. Looking at the time constraints and the amount of needed cash this seems unavoidable. Therefore, capital investment by a VC would be the best option to meet the needs on The Knot.

Why African Metallurgy Is Important History Essay

Why African Metallurgy Is Important History Essay Metallurgy is the study of metalworking from all of its aspects. In other words, it is the art of working metals (Darvill 2008, 278). Geologically, Africa is known for its promising supplies of metals. Various kinds of metals, such as copper, iron, gold, tin, uranium, manganese, cobalt, bauxite, and the likes are found almost everywhere throughout the African continent in many different settings geographically (Holl 2000,1). Generally, the study of African metallurgy is important as metalworking has brought about the greatest significance that some of the African continents have ever experienced in terms of their cultural and social development. African metallurgy was said to have later given life to the Industrial Revolution around 1,500 to 2,000 years ago when the Africans living on the Western shores of Lake Victoria, in Tanzania, produced carbon steel (http://www.africaresource.com/rasta/sesostris-the-great-the-egyptian-hercules/african-metallurgy-by-nordine-aka-storm/). In the past, some of the metals in Africa were exploited which then resulted in the rise of some of the most impressive indigenous African states, while others have been utilized only recently, as participants in the modernization and industrialization of a handful of countries at the southern end of the continent (Holl 2000, 1). An example of exploitation in metals found during the pre-colonial times in Africa can be seen in the Shaba province of the Congo where copper belt was intensively worked, and also in the adjacent district of Zambia, along with the gold fields of South Africa and Zimbabwe (Holl 2000, 1). In eastern Cameroon and the western Centr al African Republic as well as in the Poura region in Burkina-Faso (Kiethega 1983), traditional gold mining was carried out. On the Bauchi plateau, tin mining was set up. Eventually, the renowned Nok Culture was discovered as a result of the reopening of these mines (Holl 2000, 1). During the periods of Pharaonic, Kushite and later, exploitations were seen at the gold mines from the Red Sea hills and Nubia. In the west at Bure, Galam, Sanakalan, and Bambuk, the gold mines were the key to prosperity of the Ghana and Mali kings. The rise of the Zambezian states in the early second millennium A.D was the result of the early gold mining and trade as well as the changing patterns of production in Zimbabwe (Holl 2000, 1). Both iron and copper working provided a more widespread evidence of African metallurgy. These particular types of metalworking is suggested to be found almost everywhere in the western, central, eastern and southern parts of the continents. Archaeological, historical and ethno-historical information all suggest that the exploitation of these metals was an integral part of the fabric of African societies in the past (Holl 2000, 1-2). Archaeological investigations was carried out throughout inter-tropical Africa over the past three decades and it has resulted in the unearthing of a varied and extensive evidence of early iron production (Holl 2000, 2). The introduction of iron working was said to be an important turning point in Old World history, and this applies specifically in sub-Saharan Africa (Barros 2000, 147). The reason for this was because, in sub-Saharan Africa, iron working (as well as copper working) technology or tools obtained through trade (Miller and van der Merwe 1994, 1) had brought many stone-using cultures directly into the Metal Age (Barros 2000, 147). As scholars have suggested, this had led to the increase in food production through more efficient bush clearance, weeding and harvesting, causing higher population densities; larger and more stable village communities; increased specialization, trade, and social differentiation; and the appearance of a settlement hierarchy and more complex forms of political organization (Barros 2000, 147). The origins of African iron metallurgy have always been an issue that is often a dispute amongst archaeologists. It was known that the vast scale of the African continents as well as the barriers in the politics and cultures had aroused difficulties in the findings of a good evidence database to dissolve the dispute. Iron was believed to have been the first metal to appear in the archaeological records (Childs and Killick 1993, 320). Radiocarbon dates has shown that the iron smelting furnaces dated to the interval 500-1000 cal. BC in Nigeria, Niger, Tanzania and Rwanda (Childs and Killick 1993, 320). However, these dates were known to have created a further debate on the origins of African ironworking. A few oppositional voices had argued that ironworking has been invented independently in sub-Saharan Africa (Andah 1979; Schmidt and Avery 1983) (Childs et al. 2005, 278). It might be possible as the process had originated from the smelting methods which are already in used in Africa to make copper. Iron oxides were said to have been used as a soldering aid in the process of smelting copper and with some experimentation, the process then accidentally resulted in iron production, which then developed into iron smelting. In some regions, copper was found to have been smelted first but evidence of it appears to be relatively low, where only the remaining slag was found. This may be due to the inefficient methods of production. Some archaeologists had argued that the iron working techniques might have been brought by the surrounding countries into the continent through diffusion (Okafor 1993, 432). The routes used for this process was suggested to be either running south to west from Meroe on the Nubian Isle (Childs et al. 2005, 278). There are also some which was believed to have come from Egypt and then the methods scattered from the north to the sub-Saharan Africa. Iron production took quite a period of time to spread due to the massive size of the African continent which has an extreme geographical context. This resulted in the suggestions that iron had a various place of birth. The wide distribution of iron ores geologically had meant that the raw materials were readily available resulting in great potential for multiple origins of production. Archaeological evidence, including production methods used in present Africa, it seemed unlikely that the traditions and techniques could be so diversified for i t has all began from one place and one technique (Holl 2000, 9). An example can be seen from a site called the Termit Mountains, in eastern Niger. Copper and iron artefacts were found and they dated back to as far as ca. 1500 BC and the smelting furnaces dated to ca. 800 BC (Childs et al. 2005, 278). There is still an ongoing debate on whether these evidences had suggested that the community had imported these objects before producing it themselves, or, it was simply because the earlier furnaces did not survive the archaeological record instead the artefacts did (Childs et al. 2005, 278). It is also important to bring into consideration that iron working techniques were kept closely guarded secrets as this factor may influence the period it took for the Africans to be able to require the technique. Iron artefacts found in the field are often the basic evidence of iron production in the archaeological records. These artefacts are often in a corroded condition and at times could be unidentifiable. It is often unreliable to base the origin of the context to that of the artefact as where it has been made might be completely different from where it was made, a possibility that it might be imported. Concrete evidence which are often found for iron production are the used bowl of furnaces, and tuyeres and slag from the furnace or forging processes. Bloom and bellows are rare finds. Traces of mining and beneficiation of iron ore can also be used as archaeological evidence. However, these evidence could only be used if after the beneficiation, the ore has proceed to the next production level; and mining evidence are often lost as a result of recent iron ore mining. Slag analysis and radiocarbon dating the charcoal which were used to fire up the furnace was used for dating. Metallography and petrographic analysis are carried out on slag and charcoal samples in order to help understand the processes within the furnace (Kense and Okoro 1993, 449-450). Reconstruction of the iron smelting technology has been made by archaeologists as part of an important process in understanding the running of the ancient technology and to stimulate confidence that their impression of the methods used are correct. Apart from iron, copper and brass were the other metals which were widely utilized in Africa. The more widespread of iron over both copper and brass must have meant that iron had more favourable properties for different uses. The durability of iron over copper had meant that it was used to make various tools for farming pieces to weaponry. It was also used for enhancement in jewelleries, instruments and impressive pieces of artwork. Coins and currencies of multiple forms were made out of iron, such as the Kisi pennies, a traditional form of iron currency used in West Africa for trading. Kisi pennies are twisted iron rods which range from 30cm to 2m in length. They are suggested to be used in various forms of either marital transactions or simply conveniently shaped for transportation, melting down and reshaping it into another desired object. Africa has many different kinds of iron currencies, often regionally with varying shapes and values. In terms of quantity of use and production , iron had achieved a significantly high figure by comparison to other metals, but, it did not replace other materials such as stone and wooden tools. Figure 1 shows a 20th century iron West African Kisi Penny excavated from Kenema, Sierra Leone (Source: http://www.bmagic.org.uk/objects/1995C107) Iron production was recognized as having a great influence over Africa in great regional variation both culturally in trade and expansion, and socially in beliefs and rituals. Evidence for the cultural significance can be seen today as it is still carried out by the present varying African cultures. Ethnographical information has been most useful in the reconstruction of the past events surrounding iron production, but these reconstructions maybe become altered overtime and further influenced by anthropology. In Africa, the Iron Age was mainly based around the agricultural revolution which was driven by the use of iron tools. These iron tools had resulted in high efficient productions on a much larger scales. Fishing hooks, arrow heads and spears were used for hunting. Iron weapons also post effects on warfare. The productions of these items in line with the other iron goods had helped in stimulating economic activities, and led to the rise of both chiefdoms and states. The processes of producing iron were often controlled by the ironworkers personally, or a central power in larger societies such as states or kingdoms (Barros 2000, 154). Individuals in some societies had resulted as smelters or smiths, who specialize in just one particular skill from the many necessary to the production processes as a result of the demands for iron trade. This may also be possible to have resulted in some tradesmen specializing in iron transportation and trade (Barros 2000, 152). However, the iron product ion industries did not benefited every African region as some have suffered from environmental problems due to the massive deforestation needed for supplying charcoal for fuelling the smelting furnaces (Muhammed 1993, 466). An example of this can be seen from the ecological crisis of the Mema Region (Holl 2000, 48). Different social status distributes amongst iron smelters and smiths depending on their culture (Radimilahy 1993, 478-483). Some were having low status in the society as a result of the aspects of manual labour and associations with witchcrafts. These can be seen in the Maasai and Tuareg (Childs et al. 2005, 288). Whereas in other cultures, the skills are often hierarchical in the families and these individuals often held higher social status in the community. The communities often depended on these produced materials due to their powerful knowledge of iron working. They were believed to have strong supernatural powers in some communities as they were seen as highly as the king of chief. An example can be seen from the excavation in Great Lakes, Eastern Africa at the royal tomb of King Rugira, where two iron anvils were place at his head, suggesting importance and powerful significance (Childs et al. 2005, 288). According to some cultures, there are myths built up around the iron sme lter who emphasized their god like significance. As iron production developed widely across the African continent, it had significantly influenced the social rites in terms of beliefs and, particularly, rituals. The process of smelting was often done in isolation, away from the rest of the community. Ironworkers were ritually experts in encouraging good productions and to warn off bad spirits with songs and prayers, giving medicines as well as making sacrifices. The latter are often put in or buried underneath the furnace. An example of this can be seen during the early Iron Age in Tanzania and Rwanda (Schmidt 1997). Some cultures had used iron production as sexual symbolism. Smelting is suggested to be integrated with the fertility of the society, similar to the natural reproduction, production of bloom represented birth and conception. Many strict taboos were known to surround the process. Smelting processes were entirely carried out away from the village by the men. As for the women, any activities of touching of the materials or simply just being present could risk successful production. Having the men away from the fertile women had been suggested to have reduced the temptations which could otherwise depreciate the smelts productivity. The furnaces are often exaggeratedly decorated to represent an image of a woman, or the mother of the bloom (Collett 1993, 507). According to the late C. S. Smith (Smith 1981), the founder of historical metallurgy, has always insisted on the fact that metallurgy is above all an intellectual and social activity (Childs and Killick 1993, 33). The African community had used metals and various other materials such as glass, cloth and wood to express their views of the structure of nature and society, in ways as complex and diverse as the beliefs themselves; even the technology of smelting, constrained as it is by the invariant laws of thermodynamics, offers ample scope for the expression of beliefs about the order of things (Childs and Killick 1993, 33). Numerous African metallurgy scholars have been at the forefront of viewing technology as social process. Technology is not a monolithic force that is somehow separate from people, but is the product of complex ideology, careful negotiations and manipulations, and the vagaries of local resources (Childs and Killick 1993, 33). As a conclusion, African metallurgy, maybe considered to be of important to study because, not only does it include a comprehensive range of study of iron production across the African continent, but it also gives an understanding of how it influenced the aspects of archaeology in Africa. Iron production had given birth to extraordinary diversity in Africa which then had created advanced farming methods through tools, deadly warfare and trading of valuable items; and then on influenced the life of the Africans socially, culturally and politically. (2, 791 words)

Austens Northanger Abbey and Hoggs Confessions of a Justified Sinner

The Uncanny Works of Austen's Northanger Abbey and Hogg's Confessions of a Justified Sinner  Ã‚   In order to discuss the literature of the uncanny we must first be able to define "uncanny", and trying to grasp a firm understanding of the term "uncanny" is problematic; since as accepted reference works such as the Oxford English Dictionary filter down into popular culture the meaning subtly alters, or becomes drawn towards only one aspect of what was originally a much broader definition. To illustrate this, the Oxford Complete Wordfinder, Reader's Digest (1999), defines: "uncanny adj. seemingly supernatural; mysterious * see EERIE" and my word-processor contributes: meanings for "uncanny" : weird; "Of a mysteriously strange and usually frightening nature" (Word 2002 Thesaurus, allegedly adapted from the Oxford Thesaurus and Roget's 2nd: The New Thesaurus.) The OED, the source from which both of these definitions ultimately are derived, takes its associations somewhat further, and there are decided connotations of the perilous and mystic: "mischievous, malicious ... not to be trusted ... associated with supernatural arts or powers ... dangerous, unsafe" (lecture handout notes), but even considering this it is difficult to come to a decisive, all-encompassing definition of what constitutes 'uncanny literature', because to be concerned with the unknown, the subject matter must by its very nature be imprecise. What is suggested becomes far more important than what is actually said. An excellent illustration of this is the work of that master of cosmic otherworldliness, H.P. Lovecraft. (Typical extract from an e-text of his short story, The Outsider: "I beheld in full, frightful vividness the inconceivable, indescribab... ...ssible engagement with the text, it is also an invited one, because a great deal of the value of the text lies in presenting an unsettling and subtle variation upon a known theme or situation. Mastery of the literary genre depends upon a clear knowledge not only of recurrent themes and styles of the form (which exist to be perpetuated in continually evolving manner, much more so than in other genres), but of human nature and the psychological triggers which create in readers a spirit of curiosity. One might think that such a device was inherent to any form of writing of any quality, and whilst this is true, there is a much more marked difference between formulaic uncanny and gothic fiction than that of other genres. Works Cited Confessions of a Justified Sinner, James Hogg, Everyman, 1998. Northanger Abbey, Jane Austen, Oxford World's Classics, 1998.

An Explication of Sylvia Plath8217s 8220Daddy8221 Essay -- essays pape

An Explication of Sylvia Plath8217s 8220Daddy8221 It tends to be the trend for women who have had traumatic childhoods to be attracted to men who epitomize their emptiness felt as children. Women who have had unaffectionate or absent fathers, adulterous husbands or boyfriends, or relatives who molested them seem to become involved in relationships with men who, instead of being the opposite of the â€Å"monsters† in their lives, are the exact replicas of these ugly men. Sylvia Plath’s poem â€Å"Daddy† is a perfect example of this unfortunate trend. In this poem, she speaks directly to her dead father and her husband who has been cheating on her, as the poem so indicates. The first two stanzas, lines 1-10, tell the readers that Plath, for thirty years, has been afraid of her father, so scared that she dares not to â€Å"breathe or Achoo.† She has been living in fear, although she announces that he’s already dead. It is obvious that she believes that her father continues to control her life from the grave. She says that she â€Å"has had to kill† him, but he’s already dead, indicating her initial promise to forget him. She calls him a â€Å"bag full of God,† telling us that she considers her father a very strong, omnipotent being, someone who is superior in her eyes. In the middle of the poem, she begins to refer to herself as a Jew, and her father the German, who began â€Å"chuffing me off like a Jew†¦to Dachau, Auschwitz, Belson.† What Plath’s intent here is to allow us to understand that her father was a German, and she relates his behavior as a person to a Nazi. But later, she becomes more enraged, and strips the title of God from her father, and labels him a swastika and a brute. â€Å"Every woman adores a Fascist† is Plath’s way of ... ...r husband were monsters in her life, destroying her, but that she has just noticed. â€Å"Daddy, daddy, you bastard, I’m through† is the last line in the poem. It is not until the end that we realize that not only is she through with the memories of her dead father and the adulterous behavior of her husband, but she is through with herself. This last line is clear – Plath has just announced to her readers that she will be committing suicide again, and plans on being successful at it. So, instead of this poem being Plath’s victorious confession to the horrible men in her life, and finally allowing closure, the poem is an outline of her promising death. Plath is still pained by these men, and cannot completely go on being alive. She believes that death is her only solution, and maybe in a way it was. Perhaps she is finally free, and finally able to â€Å"breath† and â€Å"Achoo.†

welfare :: essays research papers

Images of Welfare   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"I pledge allegiance to the flag of the United States of America and to the republic for which it stands: one nation, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These words are uttered in elementary schools, high schools, and various events and meetings throughout the nation everyday. We usually do not associate the image of welfare with the American flag or think about it as we recite the allegiance. We, however, associate it with images of prosperity and freedom. As I look closely at the last words of this allegiance: â€Å"†¦with liberty and justice for all.† I remember the number of homeless who beg in the streets, those who for one reason or another await assistance in the social services office, and those who because of the color of their skin or gender association have yet to receive their share of benefits.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  According to Webster’s dictionary, welfare means â€Å"Well-doing or well-being in any respect; the enjoyment of health and the common blessings of life; exemption from any evil or calamity; prosperity; happiness.† Before taking classes such as this, my connotation of welfare was totally opposite. Welfare always meant something bad. When I heard the word ‘welfare’ I pictured a homeless person or an immigrant who’s only dream was a better life, but found it was not as easy as it seemed. When I heard about someone on welfare I was quick to jump to conclusions. I’d assume he or she was lazy and just didn’t want to work or that he or she was in some sort of trouble. Looking at Webster’s meaning I notice the words â€Å"respect† and â€Å"the common blessing of life.† I have come to realize those on welfare are people too and deserve the respect everybody else does. They may have come upon hard times or made a mistake or two, but because of the prejudice and stereotypes of others, find themselves stuck in a position where all they have is their â€Å"common blessing of life.

Evolution of Historiography in Greek Civilization Essay

Historiography is the study of how people transmit and obtain knowledge over time. It is a subject that can explain how people’s culture, social networks, economy and political ways have evolved over time. It simply shows people where they have come from to attain what is known as modernity. There are many people who have learnt the different histories of different cultures. In the paper, it is evident that there is a historiography on Greek civilization. This means that it will look at how ancient Greek used to be and how it is right now in this era of modernity. It is evident that Greek has contributed to so much especially in languages all over the world thus its history can easily be studied. Many of its writings have been used and are still being used to date but the fact is that it has changed in order to cope with the changing world (Ernst, chapter 1-6). The study of Greek historiography includes looking at the Ancient Greek whereby it is the time from Greek history to the Greek’s Dark Ages including the time when the Romans conquered it. Greek is usually considered as the provocation of Western Civilization foundation because of its powerful culture. The Greek’s powerful culture is moved from the Roman Empire to numerous parts of Europe. The main issue is that Greek civilization has had a major influence in many different languages especially in the European countries. Most of the words used by the different languages have come from the Greek words and symbols. More so, Greek is not only known for its influence in language only but also philosophy, education, art and political systems (Rodger, pp. 51). Many philosophical theories have Greek origin and the use the Greek names. America and Europe adopted these terms and used them in their studies. To date most scientific names have Greek origin. Mycenaean civilization came to an end in 1150BC and there is not so much history about it as many historians study ancient Greek from the Olympic Games in 776BC. Civilization in Greek is said to have begun after the death of Alexander the Great which was in 323 BC. Since the study of the Ancient Greek has mixed up history, it has been divided in to four parts; Greek Dark ages, archaic period, classical period and Hellenistic period. The Dark Ages period is said to have begun on 1100 to750 BC which saw the coming up of geometrical designs which were done on pottery work. The archaic period lasted between 750 to 480BC where artists were characterized by making sculptures that had unique and stiff poses. The classical period was exemplary for instance it had the Parthenon. Lastly, the Hellenistic period which begun on 323Bc and ended on 146 BC was characterized by the gaining of power and expansion of the Greek culture. This was when Alexander the great died and the roman conquest came to an end. The culture and society of the Hellenistic times did not undergo any changes until the time Christianity started to rule (Ernst, chapter 1-6). The rule of Alexander the great brought contributed to the expansion of Greek territories. This needed a political structure that kept on changing with the different phases of Greek civilization. Greece had very many independent cities and they were not divide din terms of tribes and kingdoms like other societies. The people knew that they were one and there was no need to dwell on tribal issues. This is because all of them shared the same language, religion and culture thus unified them. It should be noted that despite the recognition of them being one they were aware of the different tribes and origins where different people came from but this did not divide them at all. This is seen when different tribes in Greece unify to fight against the people who invaded Persia. In addition, the different city states were governed differently. People put up different functions for their kings especially during the Greek Dark Ages. This changed during the archaic period when different cities practiced oligarchies. The governing of a city now became hereditary whereby leadership was passed on to the son of the king. Due to the problems brought about by tyranny like protecting people of the same cultures thus bringing social unrest, Greece was the first to bring up the concept of democracy in the world (David, pp. 120-126). Citizens came for an assembly whereby they could choose who was to run the office and who was not to be in the office. The problem was that the poor people could not speak in the assemblies and even run for office. Later the democracy levels increased leading to the allowance of poor people to speak out their views and the ability for them to run the office. Athens was the first city to practice full democracy leading to other cities copying its strategy (Anne, pp. 38-40). In ancient Greece, there was nothing like special privileges. If one was not native-born in Greece they were not protected by the laws of any city state in Greece. The society was divided in to social classes by the amount of wealth one had. The only way one could move up the social ladder was if they made a lot of money. Slaves were also found in Greece but they did not have any power over any one in Greece. They were supposed to follow orders and they were not allowed to own any kind of property not only democratic rights. Young boys were allowed to start school at the age of seven years. They learnt different things like science, art, music and so on when they were older. At the age of eighteen years schooling had to come to an end and one would now become a useful member of the society by becoming part of the army through intense training (Leonora, pp. 128-130). Reference Anne P. , 2004. The Greek Civilization; Ancient Greece, published by DK publishers. Pp. 38-40. David S. , 2004. Transformation of the culture; Ancient Greek Civilization, published by Blackwell. Pp. 120-126. Ernst Breisach, 2007. Historiography Ancient, Medieval and Modern; published by the University of Chicago press. Chapters 1 to 6. Leonora N. , 2004. Social, political and culture of Greece; Temper of Greek Civilization, published by Brown University. Pp. 128-130. Rodger D. W. , 2008. The Greek dialect, the ancient European languages: Published by the Cambridge University press. Pp. 51.