How does the academic study of problem solving and thinking relate to Essay

How does the academic study of problem solving and thinking relate to everyday life - Essay Example Along with maturation, people obtain substantial competence that enables them to solve common problems encountered daily. (Holyoak 1995, p. 267) However, Anderson (1993, p. 39) explains, not everything requiring solution, like routine activities, is indeed problems. For example, summing-up a three-month electric bill, though requires solution is not a problem because one simply has to compute it either manually or electronically, but how to pay the bill with practically nothing left in one’s pocket is surely a problem. The difference here lies on the immediate availability of achieving the task. Computing the bill could be easily achieved with the simple knowledge of addition or much easier the use of calculator, but where to find the money to pay the bill not to be cut off power presents a problem, as there is no immediate solution to it. Hence a problem is determined by the gap between the present state and the target goal wherein the means to solve the gap is not immediatel y evident (Schwarz & Skurnik 2003, p. 267). Problem solving begins with problem identification (Rudd 2005, p. 11). Generally defined as the activity by which the goal of eliminating the gap is undertaken without certainty of success (Tallman, Leik, Gray, & Stafford, 1993, cited in Nelson, Brice & Gunby 2010, p.74), problem solving which could be correct or erroneous differs for every individual, because individual experiences and task demands, which problem solving entails, vary (Martinez 1998, p. 605). Similarly, the difficulty of solving problems differs in degree depending on the nature of the problem. Some could be easy; others could be truly hard or could never be solved at all. (Joswiak 2004, p. 19) ‘The relative ease of solving a problem will depend on how successful the solver has been in representing crucial elements of the task environment in his problem space’ (Simon, 1978, p. 276). The more exposed a person to varied task of compelling nature, the greater is the chance of that person to handle problems of similar/related nature. For example, an ex-marine has the greater chance of surviving a physical assault than a language teacher who has yet to experience physical violence. Moreover, problem solving has two aspects: The answer that which solve the problem, and the solution procedure by which way the answer is known (Robertson 2001, p. 6). With a variety of problems that people come across everyday solutions also vary by which Robertson (2001, pp. 6-11) says problems can also be categorised. One, what knowledge does the problem require – would it be â€Å"knowledge-lean† or â€Å"knowledge-rich† problems (p. 7)? For example, household maintenance though complex requires simple management, whereas ensuring national security is far more complicated that it requires expertise. Steif, Lobue, Kara, & Fay (2010, p. 135) suggest that the ability to determine fitted conceptual knowledge in order to solve a problem is cons idered a metacognitive skill. This according to Greeno (1978, p. 62) is learnable. Although, Gagne (1979) clarifies that what can be learned in problem solving are its specific aspects, cited as: "rules of syntax and mathematics," "knowledge about particular objects and events," "specific cognitive strategies" (cited in Mayer 1987, p. 111). Two, what is the nature of the goal? Is it technical, routine, domestic, political,

Critical Evaluation Of Value Chain Analysis Marketing Essay

Critical Evaluation Of Value Chain Analysis Marketing Essay In todays world, due to the development of globalization and the improvement of science and technology, the international economic situation is fast-changing. Whats more, competition is severer than before. It is unadvisable for managers to make a long-term plan and then ask the whole company to implement it days and nights. Managers should analyze the internal environments and external environments continuously surrounding their own company and then make plans in accordance with the analysis. There are lots of approaches which can be used during the strategic analysis process, such as SWOT analysis, PESTIN analysis, Value Chain analysis and Porter Five Forces. Therefore, it is very essential for managers to understand the usages of them during the strategic analysis process. Moreover, the functions of these approaches are also deserved to be researched. The main purpose of this dissertation is to evaluate critically two approaches, value chain analysis and porter five forces, during the strategic analysis process in order to make managers acquaintance with the knowledge about these two approaches and then make better plans for their own companies. There are four parts in this dissertation begun with an introduction. In the second and third parts, this dissertation will provide critical evaluation of value chain analysis and porter five forces separately by some empirical examples to illustrate the disadvantages and advantages of value chain analysis and porter five forces. A conclusion will be made in the end. Critical Evaluation of Value Chain Analysis Used during the Strategic Analysis Process According to Robbins (2009), only depending on value chain analysis, an organization delivers its products or services to its customers fast and quickly. This part will introduce what the value chain analysis is and the general review about value chain analysis. Simultaneously, this part will also explain the disadvantages and advantages of Value Chain Analysis by empirical examples. 2.1 What is Value Chain Analysis? Value chain analysis was proposed in 1985 by Michelle Porter in his book Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance (Robinson, 2009) to describe the way of how customer value accumulates along a chain of activities leading to an end product or service (Institute of Management Accountants, 1996). Porter described that value chain analysis was the internal processes or activities performed by a company to design, produce, market, deliver and support its products (Robinson, 2009, pp564). Porter also claimed that the main purpose of value chain analysis is to create a value chain strategy to meet and surpass customers demands and desires (Scholes and Whittington, 2010). And according to Robinson (2009), a successful value chain management should meet the following factors, including collaboration and cooperation, technical investment, organization process, leadership, employees, organizational culture and attitudes. Porter describes two major categories of busine ss activities: primary activities and support activities (Institute of Management Accountants, 1996, pp1). In 1993, Shank and Govindarajan broadened the definition of value chain analysis and states that the value chain is the value-creating activities of any firm to provide products and services to final consumers hands. 2.2 The General review about Value Chain Analysis The importance of value chain analysis propels lots of scholars to spend more time and energies to do researches on value chain analysis. In 2006, Khan, Pochampalli, Ding and Ponce adopted lots of approaches to make strategic case analysis, including value chain analysis taking the analysis of Nucor Corporation as the example. They analyzed Nucor Corporations mission, products and services, leadership, culture, structure and governance and gained the concluded that Nucor Corporation had the unique leadership, strong corporate culture and decentralized structure, which led this company to be successful and have effective corporate governance (Khan, Pochampalli, Ding and Ponce, 2006). In 2003, Dekker wrote an article named Value Chain Analysis in Interfirm Relationships: A Field Study to analyze the influence of value chain analysis on management accounting. In this article, Dekker pointed out that interfirm relationships was the new challenges for management accounting and a value cha in analysis is a useful tool to meet this challenges. Moreover, Awa and other scholars also proposed a research called collaborative experience of value chain architecture: a systemic paradigm to building customer loyalty in 2011. There are still another researches on value chain analysis, due to the limited space, this dissertation will not list them one by one. 2.3 Explain the Disadvantages and Advantages of Value Chain Analysis by Empirical Examples According to Robinson (2009), value chain analysis has a lot of advantages and disadvantages. In this part, this dissertation will explain the disadvantages and advantages of Value Chain Analysis by empirical examples. 2.3.1 The advantages of Value Chain Analysis by Empirical Examples Before listing the advantages of value chain analysis, this dissertation first show a survey result about the benefits of value chain analysis made by Taninecz (2000) (p44). From this survey result, it is reasonable to gain the conclusion that a successful value chain analysis can improve the services level to the customers. If the company performs well on each point of the value chain and the employees cooperate well and try their best to optimize service process, the service level to the customers can be improved (Scholes and Whittington, 2010). Meanwhile, a successful value chain analysis can help company increase sales, save cost, increase market, reduce inventory and improve logistics management (Robinson, 2009). Therefore, value chain analysis emphasizes not only the production process but also the various activities that make up the chain (McCormick and Onjala, 2007). Tetra-Pak, a multinational food packaging and processing company of Swedish, is one of the excellent examples which reconfigured the value chain in the packaging industry (Institute of Management Accountants, 1996). Tetra-Pak designs and uses a filling machine to package step by step, which brings a great change to the packaging industry (Institute of Management Accountants, 1996). Under this circumstance, no space in filling and packing would be wasted. According to the survey made by institute of management accountants (1996), the famous furniture Sweden Company IKEA also reconfigures the value chain and IKEA Company divides its operation activities into several parts, including design, assembly and even home delivery and has specific requirements in each activity, which also brings a revolution to the furniture industry in Swedish and even worldwide. Nucor Corporation is one of the largest steel manufacturers in the United States and takes value chain analysis during the strategic analysis process (Ding, Khan, Pochampalli and Ponce, 2006). According to them (2006), the value chain of Nucor Corporation includes firm infrastructure, human resource, technology development, procurement, logistics and other activities and due to the usage of value chain analysis help Nucor Corporation establish strong organization culture and unique leadership, which provide an excellent foundation for this company. All in all, value chain analysis during the strategic analysis process can help managers to divide operation activities into several different activities and assign tasks to specific employees and then through the cooperation and collaboration between employees, company can be a success. 2.3.2 The Disadvantages of Value Chain Analysis by Empirical Examples In the section 2.3.2, this dissertation has introduced the advantages of value chain analysis. However, managers should overcome some obstacles when they adopt value chain analysis during the strategic analysis process. In other words, there are some deficiencies of value chain analysis. For example, if the employees are unwilling to change their status and to share information between each other, they can not collaborate and cooperate with each other. Under this circumstance, the value chain analysis can not be implemented fully and effectively (McCormick and Onjala, 2007). Secondly, excessive trust between employees also can lead value chain analysis to become a failure (Scholes and Whittington, 2010). The implementing of value chain analysis needs employees and managers have necessary abilities, such as the abilities of good coordination and team spirits and the abilities to train all the employees. However, it is difficult for managers and employees to make themselves acquaintanc e with these abilities. For example, American Standard Company, Deere Company and Furon Company have come across lots of big difficulties. Due to the development of information technology and knowledge economy, the global economic situation is fast-changing. The managers have to change the value chain of the operation activities according to the change of environment. Therefore, if the company wants to make a long-term plan, the value chain will lose its efficiency, otherwise the company will spend lots of costs to change the value chain and organize employees to implement the value chain (Cadle, Paul and Turner, 2010). Pentagon Company, a famous high technology company in the United States, has no chance to take value chain analysis during the strategic analysis process if this company can not ensure the security of its own website (Robinson, 2009). Therefore, there are still some disadvantages of value chain analysis. 3. Critical Evaluation of Porters Five Forces Used during the Strategic Analysis Process Same as the value chain analysis, Porters Five Forces also has advantages and disadvantages, which will be exposed in this part by some empirical examples. 3.1 What is Porters Five Forces? Porters Five Forces Analysis is a theory made by Michael Porter, who is a professor in Harvard University. He came up with five factors that may influence the profitability of a company, namely the intensity of rivalry among existing competitors, threat of entry by new competitors, pressure from substitute products, bargaining power of buyers, and bargaining power of suppliers (Scholes and Whittington, 2010). First, the rivalry can be weak or intensive. If it is weak, theres no need to worry about it. But if it is intensive, it should be pay much more attention to. When having the intensive rivalry among existing competitors, one is likely to be in a cut-throat position. Many factors will influence the intensity of rivalry, including the size of competitors, the costs of products, and the product differentiation (Scholes and Whittington, 2010). Second, the new companies are the other threats to ones benefits. They will become the obstacles to expend your market scale and cut off your market share (Robinson, 2009). Third, pressure from substitute products is another barrier for a company to get interests. Fourth, bargaining power of buyers is of the vital importance in the effect of the benefits (Scholes and Whittington, 2010). Since the profit margin has close relationship with the price. When the price is low, the profit margin may be high and vise versa. Last but not the least, bargaini ng power of suppliers is much similar to the factor of bargaining power of buyers. When the supply price is low, the costs of the product are low. Therefore, the profit margin will be high due to the low cost. 3.2 The General Review about Porters Five Forces As mentioned before, Porters Five Forces Analysis has its own characteristics. These are helpful when used as managerial strategies in big decision of the company. Most of the researches about the Porters Five Forces Analysis is based on the prior experiments, collective data and analysis. For example, the application of the Porter Five Forces Analysis in Internet (Nikolopoulos, 2005 ¼Ã¢â‚¬ °and automobile industry (Cafferky, 2005) . All these researches can be viewed as the practical theories for future use. Undoubtedly, the aim of these studies is to find out the managerial problems and ways to solve these problems. This model is strive to improve the companys performance through the analysis, namely which part of its market it the most profitable one and which is the most cost-consuming one. After the Porters Five Forces Analysis, great efforts should be made to maximize the former market and minimize the latter market. It will help the company make the greatest profits as well. The well management of the five most important factors influencing the market share will reduce the difficulties standing in the progressing path. This framework of the Porters Five Forces can also define the opportunities, threats, strengths and weaknesses. Ones structure coping with these five forces can determine competitiveness of the company. 3.3 Explain the Disadvantages and Advantages of Porters Five Forces by Empirical Examples The Porters Five Forces Analysis has its advantages and disadvantages. If used well, it will help make great profits for a company. As for the advantages, it is very simple and direct. It has a simple framework in dealing with managerial problems. However, it also has shortcomings. For examples, it is not as clear as the Value Chain Analysis. The five factors cannot be separated clearly when analyzing. On the other hand, it can be easily affected by other factors, such as the size of the company, different economic environment and national investments. 3.3.1 Advantages of Porters Five Forces There are many advantages of Porters Five Forces Analysis, but two are among the most important ones. The first one is simplicity. Compared to other models, it is very simple. Five factors are easy to define. In the Mobile Company, the Porters theory provides an easy access to the information about these areas. It is known to all, this area is much more complicated regarding the practical market. But the five factors narrow these complicated factors down to the relationship among the suppliers, the sellers, and the buyers. The cash flows among the three most important participators. The main rivalries in this field in China are China Mobile, China Unicom and China Telecom. The competition is still very fierce (Wu, 2012). As the emerging of the iphones and various kinds of smart phones, China Unicom Company begins to take on the stage by its excellent 3G service. The company can quickly identify its valuable market and worthless market by the Porters theory. Here the word valuable mea ns that it will make profits for the company and worthless means that it makes little contribution to the companys benefits. Although there isnt the fourth competitor, the potential threats still exist. However, from Porters theory, the problems can be simply defined and solutions can be easily made to solve the problems. The second one is directness. The diagram of the Porters Five Forces Analysis seems very direct to analyze. In automobile industry, substitute products are used in order to improve the performance and to increase profits. It goes straight to the point so that the weakness and threats. For example, the General Motors Corp decides to reduce the carbon emission of its cars. So it tries its best to cooperate with an Italy company who can produce the environmental-friendly combustion motor. With the new motors, the company successfully increases its competitiveness and decreases its costs. Innovation ranks the most important factor affecting ones profitability. Without innovation, one could not move forward. But if substitute products are used instead of innovation, it may be a solution at the moment. And in modern society, such action can express its good images of being responsible. It means the company is not a profit-striving business man. It cares about people, society and the whole world. 3.3.2 Disadvantages of Porters Five Forces The first one is that it is unclear. The five forces may be easy to define, but it has no clear boundary. Each involves many details. What is more important, they cannot be separated clearly. In other words, they overlap each other. For instance, in the steel industry, the supplier power changes with the buyer power, and the buyer power is also swifts with the supplier power. They are mutually influenced. It is difficult to say which one is the fatal factor. Also in the General Motors Corp, five factors should be analyzed together. None of them can be separated from others. For example, the threats of the new entry warn the General Motors Corp to change its traditional producing forms. New technology should be employed to enhance its images and competitiveness. Therefore, the company analyses all of the five factors to solve the problems and to expand its market share all over the world. Second, it is easy to be influenced by other uncontrollable factors. Also in the steel industry, it has gone through many stages, from immature to mature (Ponce, 2006). When at the immature stage of lifecycle, the suppliers and the buyers are instable, while in the mature stage, they are consolidate. Different states of the buyer power and the supplier power will lead to different problems. It is too hush to make decision only according the only five factors. An overview should be made to identify the whole situation. And a comprehensive thinking should be put into the analysis. Although there are shortcomings of the Porters Five Forces Analysis, it is still a valuable framework used to discriminate the strength, weakness, threats and opportunities of the company. And it is useful to solve various problems that one could meet. Conclusion In conclusion, managers should make plans for their own companies according the fast-changing economic situation worldwide and during the strategic analysis process, it is essential for them to adopt some useful approaches, such as value chain analysis, SWOT analysis, porter five forces analysis and the like. Therefore, this dissertation provides a critical evaluation of value chain analysis and porter five force during the strategic analysis process. Before representing the advantages and disadvantages of value chain analysis and porter five forces, this dissertation has provide the definition and general literature review about these two approaches. From the above analysis, it is reasonable to conclude that the value chain analysis and porter five forces have advantages as well as disadvantages, which can help managers to learn about the general knowledge about these two approaches. Meanwhile, during the strategic analysis process, the managers can make full use of their advantages to gain more efficiency. Due to the limited energy and time, limitations must exist in any kind of research. This dissertation mainly takes the secondary data, which mainly are from journals, books and website, so it is difficult to ensure that the data are reliable enough. Due to the limited space, this dissertation can not explain all the disadvantages and advantages of these approaches and the listed examples may not represent all the industries and be typical. And all of these are the key points which are needed to be improved in the future. In the end, this dissertation will give the audiences some suggestions for future research to do the researches about the merits and demerits of these approaches better in the future. For example, the researchers should do some practical surveys about these two approaches to learn about the usage situations in different industries. Secondly, the researches also can make good use of books, journals, websites and even magazines to gain more and better information to give more specific analysis about the disadvantages and advantages about these two approaches.

Nursing Ethics Essay -- essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nurses support and enable individuals, families and groups to maintain, restore or improve their health status. Nurse also care for and comfort when deterioration of health has become irreversible. A traditional ideal of nursing is caring and nurturing of human beings regardless of race, religion, status, age, gender, diagnosis, or any other grounds.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nursing care is based on the development of a helping relationship and the implementation and evaluation of therapeutic processes. Therapeutic process includes health promotion, education, counseling, nursing interventions and empowerment of individuals, families or groups. It helps individuals make choices in regards to their health care.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nurses are independent moral agents and sometimes they have a personal moral conflicts that makes them uncomfortable with participating in certain procedures. Nurses have a moral obligation to the profession, but they are morally entitled to refuse to participate in procedures which would violate their moral beliefs. Nurses accepting positions where they maybe called on to go against their own moral beliefs, should inform their employer. Their employer and their coworkers have a responsibility to ensure that they’re not discriminated against.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Nursing practices is present in a variety of settings. Any setting can be affected by factors which are not within a nurse’s control or influence. These include resource constraints, institutional policies, management decisions, ...

Examples of human societies that collapsed prior to c. 1700 CE

Classic Mayan civilization was among the most advanced to ever develop in the New World prior to European contact, and at its height, Mayan cities supported populations estimated at 250 to 750 people per square mile. 1 They were the only advanced Mesoamerican civilization to have developed an extensive system of writing; they also developed their own unique calendar, and extensively studied mathematics and astronomy.The Classic period of Maya civilization is thought to have begun around 250 CE, based on scholarly interpretation of glyphs on Mayan monuments. 2 It is thought that the occurrence of certain repetitive glyphs within an area signify the rise of a local dynasty or kingdom. Based on the number of archeologically verified houses, the Mayan population is estimated to have exponentially increased to its peak of approximately 13 million in around 750CE3, accompanied by a similar increase in the number and size of monuments and buildings.After this point these numbers decline unt il around 900 CE, which is said to mark the collapse of the Classic Mayan civilization in general. Among Mayan cities of the Classic period, however, some were noted to have peaked and collapsed as early as 600 CE, while others persisted much longer, such as Chichen Itza (around 1250 CE). 4The end of the Classic Maya period was not the end of Mayan civilization itself, because Spanish explorers such as Cortes encountered Mayan resistance as they established their presence in the area. While diseases introduced by the Spanish occupation eventually brought the survivors’ numbers down to an estimated 3,000 in 1714 CE5, the Spanish occupation itself was not a significant factor in the decline of a civilization which had already reached its zenith and collapsed centuries before.Although the Spaniards’ religious fervor drove them to destroy several of the Mayan manuscripts out of fear of paganism, the surviving written records have enabled archeologists to understand much ab out the Mayan writing system, and the explorers’ own documentation of the Maya have proved helpful to scholars6. Modern scientific methods have enabled us to understand a great deal about the factors that may have undermined such an advanced society and brought about its downfall.Located at latitudes of 17o to 22o north of the equator, rainfall in the land of the ancient Maya is seasonal and unpredictable, and hence in reality, the habitat of the Mayan civilization can be most accurately described as a seasonal rainforest or desert7. Rainfall varies with location, from 500 mm a year along the north coast, to 4,000 mm a year in some southern areas8. Due to the unpredictable timing and amount of rain in any given season, even modern farmers have frequently encountered difficulties in growing crops.The Maya obviously succeeded in their agricultural efforts for a long time, and cities such as Tikal even show evidence of the construction of cisterns and reservoirs to store water i n times of drought9. However, considering the high population density of Classic Mayan cities at their peak, even with their successful agriculture and ability to store water reserves in times of drought, the Maya would still have been vulnerable to severe, prolonged drought – perhaps enough to send them into collapse.To find records of what the climate in the Mayan homeland was like at that time, geologists from the University of Florida gathered sediment cores from several lakes in the Yucatan area and analyzed the patterns of deposition, which indicate that the driest interval in the region in the past 7,000 years had coincided with the collapse of the Classic Maya civilization, between 800-1000 CE. A further study by Larry Peterson and Gerald Haug used x-ray fluorescence to analyze oceanic sediment cores.Titanium and iron deposits in the sediment were used as indicators of rainfall, because these elements originate predominantly from continental rocks and thus a high amou nt of titanium and iron deposits would reflect on a high volume of rainfall on land in that year. The results corroborated the previous study that had been made using freshwater sediments, indicating an unusually long and severe drought during the period of Classic Maya collapse10. Despite this evidence, the drought theory behind the collapse of Classic Mayan civilization remains far from providing a complete and thoroughly satisfactory explanation.It fails to account for the previously mentioned differences in the dates of collapse of cities that lay within the same region and presumably suffered from the same drought. It has been suggested that the first cities to fall to the drought were more vulnerable by virtue of location, being less proximate to natural bodies of water, such as springs and rivers. This could then lead to warfare between cities due to competition for scant resources, and since the Mayan cities never were united into a single empire, it is likely that such warf are may have greatly destabilized Mayan society.As with other cases of collapsed societies throughout history, it is likely that multiple causes, of which drought was the most significant but by no means the only one, contrived to bring about the fall of the advanced Mayan society. Another society that was founded, peaked, and collapsed close to our modern day home would be the Anasazi of Chaco Canyon. This society had collapsed well before the arrival of Columbus, but unlike the Maya, left behind no written records. What is known about the Anasazi comes from using a combination of scientific methods to analyze what remains of their society.The Native Americans who first settled the U. S. Southwest faced a problem that is still obvious today. This region has very low and unpredictable rainfall. Drought is often cited as the obvious major reason for Anasazi society’s collapse, but recent studies indicate that the Anasazi sites themselves may still have been able to sustain a p opulation at the time of their abandonment. 11 In the study of the decline and collapse of Anasazi society, archeologists have relied heavily on a few methods of analysis.One lies in the field of dendrochronology and is particularly useful since the Anasazi, particularly at Chaco Canyon, made heavy use of timber for their construction. Using the thickness of individual tree rings from a particular piece of timber, dendrochronologists are able match patterns in the rings of different trees from the same region. By comparing several different trees in this manner, dendrochronologists are able to correctly associate each ring with a specific year, starting from trees in the present day and dating back for thousands of years.Dendrochronological studies thus present highly detailed information regarding the weather patterns of the U. S. Southwest and can indicate not only years of high rainfall or drought, but also the amount of rainfall and the season within a particular year during whi ch the rain fell12. Scientists have also analyzed the contents of pack rat middens to gain insight into the local vegetation. Pack rats (Neotoma spp. ) are rodents that have lived in the area for thousands of years, and gather vegetation and other organic material from within their small territorial range, preserving it in their nests, called ‘middens’.Pack rat midden analysis has allowed scientists to determine that the initial area around Chaco Canyon was forested with pinyon and juniper trees which no longer grow today in the vicinity, and led to the conclusion that the Anasazi of Chaco Canyon had deforested their surrounding woodland for firewood to fuel their pottery making, and for construction material as Chaco became an effective political and religious center for the Anasazi society. 3 Furthermore, studies of strontium isotopes in other types of wood used at Chaco indicate that several conifer logs had actually been imported from more distant areas such as the Chuska and San Mateo mountains, presumably after Chaco itself had been deforested. 14 It is believed that this deforestation led to irreversible nutrient loss in the soil of the Chaco area, which is further strengthened by studies of food remains at archeological sites.These remains indicate that as the food supply in Chaco deteriorated, its inhabitants resorted to eating rabbits and mice, and eventually cannibalism, as evidenced by boiled human bones with smooth ends and human muscle protein found in preserved dried human feces. 15 It is probable that cannibalism came with social unrest, possibly a revolt by the providers of Chaco Canyon against the elite, and that together with these factors, a drought (dated by tree rings to around 1130 CE) pushed Anasazi society at Chaco past its limits.Numbering at possibly 5,000 or more at their peak, the Chaco Anasazi had already exhausted and deforested their environment, and likely fought amongst themselves for the remaining resources. The final example I choose to discuss is the collapse of the Norse settlement of Greenland. Greenland is a harsh and fragile environment, but at the time of the Norse occupation around 980 CE, it was experiencing a relatively warm period that lasted from 800 – 1300 CE, ending with the start of the Little Ice Age.Information about Greenland’s climate is derived from palynological studies, wherein scientists analyze pollen found in mud deposits extracted from the bottom of lakes and bogs, and ice core studies. Pollen studies reveal what sort of plants were growing in the area, and can reveal subtle shifts in climate when pollen from cold-tolerant species is prevalent.Similar to dendrochronology, ice core studies reveal the amount of snowfall within a year, and by using a mass spectrometer it is possible to analyze the content of oxygen isotopes within a layer of snow, with the ratios of these isotopes indicating the average climate during that year. Ice cores can also reveal how stormy the year was in which the snow fell by analyzing concentrations of sodium and calcium ions, which are brought inland by sea spray. 16 By 1000 CE the Norse had settled Greenland in two different areas with a total population of around 5,000.They relied on hay farming to feed their livestock, which consisted of goats, sheep, and cows, but due to the length and severity of their winters, they were forced to estimate how many animals they could support with their stockpiled hay, and slaughter the remainder. If the winter lasted longer than expected, the consequences could obviously lead to the starvation and death of the few remaining livestock. Their pastoral lifestyle, use of turf for buildings, and need for firewood demanded the clearing of native vegetation, and livestock trampling hampered the regeneration of trees.Palynological studies support the conclusion that the Norse had deforested the environment and caused soil erosion, with the decline of pollen from willow an d birch trees as well as the presence of topsoil at the bottom of lakes indicating the loss of plant cover and soil. The loss of abundant lumber resulted in the halting of construction involving wood, and the lack of firewood limited the Norse in their efforts to pasteurize dairy products and extract iron for their implements.Unlike the Norse, the Inuit who settled Greenland in about 1200 CE managed to exploit the resources of the sea with their kayaks, hunting plentiful fish (which the Norse oddly refused to eat, as evidenced by the complete lack of fish remains in garbage) and whales, whose blubber could be used for fuel and warmth. Possible hostile contact between the Norse and Inuit may also have led to the decline of Norse society on Greenland, because it prevented the Norse from peacefully interacting with their neighbors and learning from them how to adapt to the extreme conditions.Another factor that weakened the Norse settlement was the increasing difficulty of transportati on, and hence trade and communication, across the sea with mainland Norway, as the cold weather brought by the Little Ice Age set in and ice began to make seafaring dangerous. 17 Summarized concisely in the words of Jared Diamond, the Norse settlement of Greenland collapsed due to â€Å"environmental damage, climate change, loss of friendly contacts with Norway, rise of hostile contacts with the Inuit, and the political, economic, social, and cultural setting of the Greenland Norse. †18

Formal Essay in Human Relationships and Life Transitions Being an Adult Essay

Throughout this essay, I will be discussing the transition of adolescence. This transition is a stage of development between childhood and adulthood, from about 12 to 20 years of age. This transition from childhood to adulthood is smooth for some but rough for others(Caspi, 2000). This essay will discuss predictable and non-predictable elements of the transition. Health in adolescence issues this involves drugs & alcohol abuse and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are classified as unpredictable elements. Physical Development (body growth and physical changes during adolescence) or Puberty and Cognitive Development are classified as a predictable element during the transition. It will also explore the impact on relationships and concepts of self for persons undertaking the transition. Furthermore, it will deliberate the contributions of contemporary and seminal authors to describe the differences between the two past and presents authors/researcher’s theories in understanding of the adolescence life transitions. Another factor that will be discussed is the concept of self during the transition, and then finally it will comprehensively explain the importance for nurses to understand the adolescence transition. A.The importance of predictable and unpredictable elements in Adolescence transitions will assist in identifying the significant changes in every life event transition. Moreover, it will also benefit in supporting adolescent to meet challenging changes throughout the transition. The first predictable element is puberty the biological transition of adolescence, the most noticeable sign of being an adolescent. Theoretically, puberty refers as a collective term to refer to all the physical changes that occur in the growing girl or boy as the individual passes from childhood into adulthood(Habermas & Bluck, 2000). In boys a major change is the increased production of testosterone, a male sex hormone, while girls experience increased production of the female hormone oestrogen(Dedovic, Wadiwalla, Engert, & Pruessner, 2009). In boys a major change is the increased production of testosterone, a male sex hormone, while girls experience increased production of the female hormone oestrogen (Carpentier & Fortenberry, 2010). Internally, through the development of main sexual characteristics, adolescents become capable of sexual reproduction. Externally, as secondary sexual characteristics appear, girls and boys begin to look like mature women and men. In boys primary and secondary sexual characteristics usually emerge in a predictable order, with the rapid growth of the testes and scrotum, accompanied by the appearance of pubic hair. In later years, it will begin the growth of facial and body hair, and a gradual lowering of the voice. Around mid-adolescence internal changes begin making a boy capable of producing and ejaculating sperm. In girls, sexual characteristics develop in a less regular sequence. Usually, the first sign of puberty is a slight elevation of the breasts, but sometimes this is preceded by the appearance of pubic hair. In teenage girls, internal sexual changes include maturation of the uterus, vagina, and other parts of the reproductive system. Menarche(Cochrane, 1993). Regular ovulation and the ability to carry a baby to full term usually follow menarche by several years. The second predictable element is Cognitive Development transition a second element of the passage through adolescence is a cognitive transition(Champion & Collins, 2010). Compared to children, adolescents think in ways that are more advanced, more efficient, and generally more complex. Adolescence individuals become better able than children to think about what is possible, instead of limiting their thought to what is real. Whereas children’s thinking is oriented to the here and now—that is, to things and events that they can observe directly, adolescents are able to consider what they observe against a backdrop of what is possible—they can think hypothetically. Second, during the passage into adolescence, individuals become better able to think about abstract ideas. This is clearly seen in the adolescent’s increased facility and interest in thinking about interpersonal relationships, politics, philosophy, religion, and morality—topics that involve such abstract concepts as friendship, faith, democracy, fairness, and honesty. Third, during adolescence individuals begins thinking more often about the process of thinking itself, or metacognition. As a result, adolescents may display increased introspection and self-consciousness. Although improvements in metacognitive abilities provide important intellectual advantages, one potentially negative by product of these advances is the tendency for adolescents to develop a sort of egocentrism, or intense preoccupation with the self. Acute adolescent egocentrism sometimes leads teenagers to believe that others are constantly watching and evaluating them, much as an audience glues its attention to an actor on a stage. Whereas children tend to think about things one aspect at a time, adolescents can see things through more complicated lenses. Adolescents describe themselves and others in more differentiated and complicated terms and find it easier to look at problems from multiple perspectives. The unpredictable elements are health related issues in adolescence are alcohol and other drug use. Experimentation with psychoactive substance is widespread during adolescence. Psychoactive substances are naturally occurring or artificial materials that act on the nervous system, altering perceptions, moods and behaviour. They range from naturally occurring substances, such as alcohol, which is produced from the fermentation of plant sugars by yeast, to designer drugs such as ecstasy. Most teenager experiment with different substances, constituting substance use and in some individual’s experimentation escalates into habitual or repeated usage known as substance abuse. They also engaged in â€Å"binge drinking† which arising in recent years. Binge drinking is defined as the consecutive ingestion of five or more standard drinks in less than two hours. Other factors of unpredictable health issues is sexually transmitted infections, adolescent sexual behaviour may impose a significant health risk to teenagers through a range of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Sexually transmitted infections are bacterial and viral infections that enter the body via the mucous membranes of the mouth and the sex organs following physical contact. Sexually transmitted infection includes syphilis, gonorrhoea, genital lice, scabies, chlamydia, herpes, genital warts, hepatitis and HIV/AIDS. The reason for the high rates of STIs in adolescents is that this age group is more prone to sexual experimentation and risky sexual behaviours than other age groups. Risky sexual behaviour includes unprotected sexual activity without using barriers such as condoms, sexual activity involving multiple partners and sexual activity involving partners whose sexual is unknown. B. The impact on relationships and concepts of self for persons undertaking the transition is established by a personal identity a key task of adolescence is successful resolution of Erikson’s psychosocial crisis of identity versus role confusion. Identify formation involves selectively integrating some aspects of earlier childhood identity and discarding others. Successful resolution of the identity crisis of adolescence depends on the opportunities to experiment with different social roles and activities. Individual differences identify achievement are due to culture, gender roles , peer influences, parenting styles and life circumstances experienced by adolescents, which may increase or decrease opportunities for exploration. Self-concept is based on more abstract beliefs and values than the concrete and comparative ideas of self during childhood. Increased of perspective-taking ability may reveal ‘true’ and ‘false’ selves in relation to interactions with different people, but this can reflect positive experimentation with different roles that contribute to self-concept. Self-esteem decreases significantly between child self-concept and mid- adolescence, and more dramatically for girls than for boy s. The sex differences is probably anchored to sex-role differences, greater body image dissatisfaction in girls than in boys, and the differential boost to self-worth that romantic relationships bring to adolescent boys and girls. Parent –child relationships become less asymmetrical term s of the balance of power during adolescence compared with childhood, as a result of adolescent’s push for autonomy. There are wide individual differences in the degree of autonomy achieved by adolescents, depending on parenting styles and cultural and gender based norms and attitude. During adolesce, close same-sex cliques and larger, looser amalgamations of several cliques called crow. Cliques and crowds provide the backdrop for new cross-sex interaction, including romantic relationships. Peer group conformity within cliques seeks out different kinds of advice and support from both parents and peers, Nonetheless, for minority ineffective parenting and influenced with a wrong crowd will experience a criminal career, exacerbate the pre-existing interpersonal difficulties that predispose adolescent to violence and being a gang members in the society. Bullying is also common in the society especially teens in primary and high school, it can affect the psychosocial development of a person. Positive peer relationships include same-sex friendships that are high in intimacy and mutual support are both essential in bridging to a successful romantic relationships which may also begin during adolescence. During adolescence, most individuals experience their first sexual intercourse. The age when this occurs is becoming earlier, depending on gender, cultural constraints and peer influences. Sexual minority status –lesbians, gay or bisexual may pose additional challenges to identify formation and sexual maturation during adolescence. C.The contribution of past and present authors and researcher’s in understanding towards the adolescent life transitions has vast changes in time. According to Kohlberg’s theory (Benenson, Tennyson, & Wrangham, 2011) extended Piaget’s work on moral development during the 1960’s uses male protagonist only as an examples of his theories which contradicts Carol Gilligan’s author of her popular book , â€Å"In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development† (1982), suggested that Kohlberg’s theories were biased against women, as only males were used in his studies. By listening to women’s experiences, Gilligan offered that a morality of care can serve in the place of the morality of justice and rights espoused by Kohlberg. In her view, the morality of caring and responsibility is premised in nonviolence, while the morality of justice and rights is based on equality. (Gilligan, 1982). CONCLUSION As we discussed the main points of being adolescence it embodies the importance, relevance and impact of a particular life event transition. Adolescence is a distinct stage that marks the transition between childhood and adulthood. Adolescents are capable of abstract reasoning. Although you may still include the family in education, adolescents themselves are a major focus of teaching since they have considerable independence and are, consequently, in more control of the degree to which recommendations will be carried out. Adolescents have many important developmental tasks to achieve. They are in the process of forming their own identity, separating themselves from parents, and adapting to rapidly changing bodies. Bodily changes at puberty may cause a strong interest in bodily functions and appearance. Sexual adjustment and a strong desire to express sexual urges become important. Adolescents may have difficulty imagining that they can become sick or injured. This may contribute to accidents due to risk taking or poor compliance in following medical recommendations. Because adolescents have a strong natural preoccupation with appearance and have a high need for peer support and acceptance, health recommendations that they view as interfering with their concept of themselves as independent beings may be less likely to be followed. Therefore, as sexual adjustment and strong sexual urges characterize this age, the nurse may do significant teaching about sex education and contraception. In addition to teaching adolescents about why and how their bodies are changing, the nurse is also in a good position to dispel misconceptions young patients may have about sexual development or sexual behaviour. Teaching adolescents about sexuality requires a special sensitivity and understanding. Respect for the patient’s modesty, privacy, and opinions are critical to establishing an atmosphere of openness and trust. In addition to sex education, other important patient teaching areas are alcohol and drug abuse and general health measures, such as the importance of good nutrition and exercise as the basis for life-long health. Regardless of the topic, health education for adolescents is more effective when the nurse establishes trust by respecting the adolescent’s needs, shows empathetic understanding, and answers questions honestly. Patient teaching for adolescents should take the form of guidance rather than lecturing. Nurses who gain credibility with an adolescent patient establish themselves as the teen-ager’s advocate rather than representatives of the parents. The nurse may increase health teaching effectiveness by including the family. The nurse can give guidance and support to family members that can help them understand and respect adolescent behaviour. Parents should be encouraged to set realistic limits for adolescents while still allowing them to become increasingly responsible for their own health care management.

Definition of a Prepositional Verb and How to Use One

Definition of a Prepositional Verb and How to Use One A prepositional verb is an idiomatic expression that combines a verb and a preposition to make a new verb with a distinct meaning. Some examples of prepositional verbs in English are care for, long for, apply for, approve of, add to, resort to, result in, count on,  and deal with. The preposition in a prepositional verb is generally followed by a noun or pronoun, and thus prepositional verbs are transitive. Examples and Observations God has cared for these trees, saved them from drought, disease, avalanches, and a thousand tempests and floods. But he cannot save them from fools. (John Muir, The American Forests. The Atlantic Monthly, 1897)The difference between the old ballplayer and the new ballplayer is the jersey. The old ballplayer cared about the name on the front. The new ballplayer cares about the name on the back. (Steve Garvey)I believe in equality for everyone, except reporters and photographers. (Mahatma Gandhi) Prepositional verbs consist of a transitive verb plus a preposition with which it is closely associated. He stared at the girl.She finally decided on the blue car. Prepositional verbs do not take the particle movement rule. The verb and the following preposition can be separated by an adverb, and the preposition can precede a relative pronoun and appear at the beginning of a wh- question. He stared intently at the girl.The girl at whom he was staring was strikingly beautiful.At whom was he staring? (Ron Cowan, The Teachers Grammar of English. Cambridge University Press, 2008) Pronouncing Prepositional Verbs A prepositional verb consists of a verb plus a particle which is clearly a preposition: for example, look at, send for, rely on. These are mostly lexically singly stressed, with a primary stress going on the verb. Thus look at has the same stress pattern as edit or borrow. The second element, the preposition, being unstressed, does not get accented (unless for contrastive focus). (John Christopher Wells, English Intonation. Cambridge University Press, 2006) The Difference Between Phrasal Verbs and Prepositional Verbs There are a number of syntactic criteria you can use for distinguishing phrasal verbs from prepositional verbs: in transitive phrasal verbs, the particle is movable, but the preposition in a prepositional verb is not;the NP is the object of the verb in phrasal verbs rather than of the preposition;in both transitive and intransitive phrasal verbs, the particle carries stress, as in She took the cap off or The plane took off, while prepositions are unstressed, as in We knocked on the door.adverbials cannot intervene between the verb and the particle whereas they can between the verb and the preposition, *looked quickly up the information, but looked quickly into the oven. (Laurel J. Brinton, The Structure of Modern English: A Linguistic Introduction. John Benjamins, 2000)

Gathering Blue Essay Essay Essays

Gathering Blue Essay Essay Essays Gathering Blue Essay Essay Essay Gathering Blue Essay Essay Essay Kira is a miss with a distorted leg who lives in a more crude society where people who can non work. dice. She has been kept alive by her female parent. and when her female parent dies. Kira is brought before the Council of Guardians. Kira’s life is spared when she proves she can weave really good. and she is assigned to the undertaking of repairing up the robe worn by the vocalist whose lone occupation is to sing the narrative of human civilisation one time a twelvemonth. She meets Thomas. the male child whose responsibility is to carve the Singer’s staff. When happening out she needs to dye her ain yarn. Kira begins doing a trip to the hut of Annabella. an old adult female who teaches Kira dyeing. Annabella shows her the workss needed to do every colour. except for blue. : Kira easy learns that her life is less than idyllic. She hears shouting in her edifice. and she and Thomas discover another orphan miss whose ability is to sing and will finally replace the current Singer. The orphan miss is scolded and punished if she does non sing ; Kira befriends her but realizes she. Thomas. and the orphan miss do non hold every bit much freedom as idea. At the Ceremony. she sees the Singer ( whose robe she is repairing ) . She realizes that his pess are chained. and he is basically a captive. The deduction is that she and the others with gifts are besides captives. Kira is besides friends with a male child named Matt. He tells Kira of a small town he one time came across while lost in the forests. This small town had blue. When the twenty-four hours that the Singer sings his vocal comes. Matt is nowhere to be found. He finally returns with a unsighted adult male from the small town in a bluish shirt. The adult male. it turns out. is the male parent whom Kira tho ught was dead: Christopher. He now lives in a community made up of injured and handicapped people who help one another. Christopher has enemies on the council and is forced to return. Kira decides to remain in the small town to go on to repair the singer’s robe and assist better the society she lives in. Finally. shut to the terminal of the book Matt tells Kira about a male child with bluish eyes from the community her pa is from. He says he has bluish eyes and is non injured in any manner. He thinks Kira should acquire married with him. but Kira diminutions. That male child is subsequently revealed to be ‘Jonas’ from The Giver.a book besides by Lowry. Fictional characters: Kira – a immature miss with a distorted leg and gifted in weaving ; She is the supporter of the novel Vandara – an evil enemy of Kira’s ; she requests that Kira be sent to the field to decease Annabella – an aged adult female who teaches Kira about dyes Thomas – Kira’s friend. a immature adult male gifted in wood carvings Jo – a yearling miss gifted in singing Matt – a immature male child who helps Kira. Thomas. and ( subsequently ) Christopher Jamison – an older adult male. Kira’s patron and wise man from the Council of Guardians ; subsequently found to be the adult male who attempted to kill Christopher. Christopher – Kira’s male parent Katrina – Kira’s Mother Branch – Matt’s Canis familiaris

What Is the ACT Kaplan ACT Low Cost Test Prep Program

What Is the ACT Kaplan ACT Low Cost Test Prep Program SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips The ACT has just announced its first official partnership with a test prep company: Kaplan. This may be big news for students who are planning to take the ACT - in cooperation with Kaplan, ACT, Inc. will be providing a low-cost (or even free) test prep program calledACT ® Kaplan Online Prep Live. There isn’t a ton of information just yet about the quality of the new test prep platform - students won’t be able to access it for a while - but we do know what the program should include and what it should cost. Free streaming courses are airing live in advance of the program launch - you can read more about what these courses are like towards the end of the post. Read more to find out what this new test prep partnership will mean for you! The ACT/Kaplan Partnership The ACT and the SAT are in perpetual competition for student test-takers. Last year, the College Boardannounced a partnership with Khan Academy to provide free test prep - it’s no surprise that ACT, Inc.has followed suit with a similar move:formally partnering up with Kaplan to offeran online prep programat no cost to low-income students and a â€Å"significantly lower cost† than other prep programs for all other students. Although the partnership was just announced, the test prep program won’t be available until Fall 2016 (so it won’t be of much help to students who are taking the ACT this summer). The program is offering a few free classes before the official launch date, however - check out the ACT streaming events page, and keep reading for more info. Program Costs This test prep program will be free of charge for low-income students. To qualify, students need to register for the ACT with a fee waiver (read our complete guide to ACT fee waivers for more information). Access to the platform should come to less than $200 for students who don’t qualify for the fee waiver. What Will the Program Include? The price for this test prep program seems pretty reasonable, but more important than the price is what you’ll get for your money. First, the program includes access to live classes taught by Kaplan instructors. Students should be able to interact with these instructors through the course platform, although it’s unclear how much individual feedback each student will receive (it’s likely that many students will be watching each live class - there’s no way one instructor could respond, in real time, to questions from hundreds of students). Students will also have access to recorded classes if they’re unable to watch live - this affords some flexibility. These courses will be available on computers, tablets, and phones, so you can watch them on the go. The ACT/Kaplan haven’t publicized a list of class topics, but they currently have a few free courses on the calendar - I imagine that the new prep program’s courses will be similar in scope. Here’s the free course schedule: Understanding Your ACT Scores and What to Do Next (April 30, 2016 @2pm EDT) Introduction to Stem Concepts (May 11, 2016 @7pm EDT) Introduction to ELA Concepts (May 22, 2016 @2pm EDT) The program will also include access to a social platform including teachers and peers. This social media platform is supposed to facilitate a community for discussion, encouragement, and support. Whatthe Program Will Not Include Based on the program’s press release, there are a few key things not provided by this test prep program. First, as an online version of an ACT prep course, this prep program does not provide personalized or customized instruction to students (aside from any feedback provided via live course instruction). Instead, I predict that it will serve as an introduction to core concept areas, test strategies, and logistical concerns. Second, although instructors will use official ACT questions as examples when they teach thelive courses, it doesn’t seem that students will have access to any additional official practice materials. The ACT does release some official practice materials for free - these are available to everyone -but other official prep materials must be purchased. The Bottom Line What’s included with this program is definitely subject to change, but for now (at least based on the official press release), here’s what students seem to get for their money: Access to live (or on-demand, if you can’t watch live) courses on ACT content and logistics topics. Opportunities for interactions with teachers during live classes. Access to a social media platform with peers and instructors. No extra practice materials or personalized instruction. However, keep in mind that we have only very preliminary informationright now. A lot of details could change before the program's official release this fall. Online Prep Live: Free Streaming Events To get a taste for what the paid Online Prep program will be like, I watched the program's firstfree streaming class: Understanding Your ACT Scores and What to Do Next. It aired on Saturday, April 30. Course Overview This live, online course(presumably similar to what the actual Online Prep Live classes will be like) was easily accessible via this announcement page. This course addressed: What the info on your ACT score report means and how you can use it ACT College and Career Readiness Standards (both what they are and why they matter) ACT next steps, including deciding whether or not to retake the test and improving your scores Exploring future college and career options Pros I was impressed with howeasy it was to access this course, as well as how clearly the information was communicated. The instructor (Boris) was engaging and knowledgeable, which is a big plus. Although students weren't able to chat directly with the instructor, he noted at the beginning of the course that a "team of ACT experts" were online to answer student questions throughout the live session. Borisnoted particular student comments or questions throughout the live event, so he seemed generally plugged in to student concerns. In addressing student questions, the instructor referredto real-life data which helped back up his claims.He wanted to answer, for example, whether retaking the ACT would make students look bad to admissions officers. In responding, he pointed out that many students retake the test, and the majority of them (57%) end up with a higher score the second time around. Finally, I appreciated that anyone who's interested caneither watch the recorded event on-demand and access a full transcript of the course at any time. Cons First, this hour-long prep course was nowhere near an hour long. If you reference the event recording, you'll notice that the first and last sections are ads for the paid ACT Online Prep Live program, NOT course instruction footage. This meant that Boris was actually teaching for about 36 minutes in total. Second, the coursedidn't always providehelpful, concrete instructions or resources when addressing student concerns. In discussing some free tools that are available to help students raise scores, for example, Boris notes that you should take a list of your weak test skills to a guidance counselor for more help. Although it's greatto know where you should work to improve, students may have benefitedfrom references to helpful test prep materials. Next, the instructor spent some time encouraging viewers to participate in the chat platformwith prompts like "tell me if you empathize with these struggles!" Some viewers may really appreciate how this approach fosters a sense of community among viewers, but I felt it wasted time that could have been spent reviewing other material. These free streaming courses won't be helpful for everyone (especially students who already know the ins and outs of the test), but I encourage you to check out the transcript or recordingbefore deciding whether they're right for you. How the ACT/Kaplan Partnership Will Affect Student Test Prep Since this is the first time the ACT has officially partnered with any test prep company, the new online prepprogram is bound to make waves. It hasn’t officially launched, so no one can be completely sure of the program’s strengths and weaknesses. Based on what the program offers (and what it doesn’t), however, I can speculate as to the program’s benefits and drawbacks. The important stuff:what does this program have to do with how you study for the ACT? Here’s how I think students may benefit (or not) from this new partnership: Potential Advantages The ACT Kaplan Online Prep Live program is a step in the right direction when it comes to providing reasonably-priced and flexible prep to busy students. Here are the program's biggest perks: Official ACT Material Whenever you're studying for any sort of standardized test, it's best to get your hands on official test prep material. ACT questions are written in a very specific style and format (something that's difficult for unofficial test prep sources to emulate).In order to do well on the test, it's important to familiarize yourself with itsunique style. Test-makers are usually pretty careful with how much official material they release for practice. Since this Live Prep Program is endorsed by the ACT, you can be sure that instructors will only refer to official sample questions as they teach. Ease of Access Whenyou sign up for your standard ACT course, it means committing to attending classes at certain times and dates.If you're dealing with a packed schedule and/or limited transportation options, an in-person ACT course may not work for you. The ACT Live Prep program makes it easy to watch classes at times that are convenient for you - all you need is internet access. You can choose to watch classes live or on-demand, which is helpful if you're working around other commitments. Even the best ACT course won't help you if you can't find the time to attend - an online program should make things a lot easier for the average student. Price Point One of the major barriers to accessing quality ACT prep is the cost. Kaplan is one of the biggest names in test prep - before this partnership announcement, the company's least expensive ACT course was priced at $299, whereas its more intensive courses start at $749. This is simply out of reach for many students and their families. This Live Prep program is reasonably priced when compared to many other test prep programs (especially if students qualify for ACT fee waivers, in which case they can sign up for free). A lower price point means greater access to ACT prep, which is always a good thing. Social Media Support When they sign up for the Live Prep course, students also gain accessto a social media platform with other peers and instructors. Some students may study just fine independently, but others may find it helpful to interact with peers in an effort to maintain good study practices. Potential Drawbacks Like I mentioned earlier, it's difficult to say for certain what we can expect from theACT Kaplan Online Prep Live program. Based on the itsdescription, however, there are some important weaknesses in the prep program's approach. No Extra Practice Material Like I noted earlier, there's no mention of extra material provided to students for independent study. If you want to practice any content or strategy that was discussed in a particular class, you'll likely have to find your own practice questions or tests. No Customization This is a weakness that you'll find with any test prep course. Instructors are there to teach an entire class, not individual students - as such, you may find certain lessons less helpful than others (for example, a lesson that goes over content you're already very familiar with).Conversely, there won't be opportunities for you to get extra help with concepts youstruggle with. To study most effectively and most efficiently, you'll want to spend the most time on things that are difficult for you. Because every student is different, every student's ideal study plan will be different. This is something that the ACT Kaplan Online Prep Live program can't accommodate. Most group classes take a "one size fits all" approach out of necessity. Limited Interaction With Instructors The program description states that students will be able to ask questions of instructors during live classes. Although this is an interesting idea, I don't see how it would work in practice -each live course will likely have hundreds of students (or even more) watching at one time. There's no way that an instructor could personally respond to questions from so many students. I expect that select questions (e.g. questions that would apply to the greatest number of students) will be answered during live questions. Hearing teachers respond to others' inquiries may be helpful, but I wouldn't go into a class expecting to have my own personal questions answered. Reliance on Social Media Support You may be wondering why I have this in the "potential drawbacks" section. A big problem that I have with the social media support platform is that the prep program is preemptivelydirecting students therefor answers to test-related questions. This is problematic because most of the people on this platform aren't going to be ACT instructors - they're going to be other students. Although it's possible to get reliable help from savvy students, it's also possible to get very misguided (and simply incorrect) advice. The social media platform is likely to be an awesome resources for thosewho are looking for a test prep community,but students who turn to it for test prep help should take advice with a grain of salt. Overview Versus In-Depth Course Material The Live Prep course has yet to release the full rangeof topics that they'll cover with their classes. They may very well introduce classes that address higher-level content and strategy concerns, but based on their list of free streaming classes, I doubt that will be the case.Students who are already familiar with ACT logistics, strategy, and content won't benefit from classes that primarily address the basics. Should You Use the New Prep Plan? Now that you have all the available information on theACT Kaplan Online Prep Live program, you might be wondering if you should sign up. I can't tell you whether you should definitely buy the program, but I think some students would benefit from it more than others. Consider Signing Up If ... You qualify for an ACT fee waiver.If you qualify for a waiver, the program is free. There's no harm in signing up, even if you don't end up finding it that helpful. You don't know much about the ACT and you would benefit from an overview course.Based on the free streaming events the program is offering in advance of its actual launch, it looks like the courses will address important introductory concepts (e.g. "Understanding Your ACT Scores and What to Do Next"). If the ACT basics are new to you, this program may be a good fit. It's difficult for you to committo any in-person ACT prep programs. This ACT/Kaplan program makes it easy for students to watch courses anywhere, anytime. If you require more flexibility from an ACT prep program, you might want to check this one out. Consider Passing on the Course If ... You're a relatively high-scorer and need in-depth ACT review. If this is the case, I doubt the course will teach you anything you don't already know. Spend your time more effectively by perfecting your scores. You're planning on taking the ACT this summer, fall, or early winter. The program doesn't launch until Fall 2016, so if you're taking the ACT before then (or soon thereafter), you won't have enough time to benefit from the online courses. You have the resources (and motivation) to participate in a program that provides customized feedback. You'll be able to prep more effectively if you can get real feedback on your strengths and weaknesses. Courses like this one are a good place to start, but if you want more guidance and support, I'd encourage you to look into other options. What's Next? Want more information on other ACT prep options? Read about whether online prep (and online tutoring) is right for you, and learn more about the differences between in-person and online ACT courses. Maybe you've considered getting an ACT tutor, but you also want the flexibility of online prep. Learn more about the difference between online and in-person tutoring. Want to improve your ACT score by 4+ points? Download our free guide to the top 5 strategies you need in your prep to improve your ACT score dramatically.

Different Punctutation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Different Punctutation - Essay Example Because both are historically rich, each of these occasions has developed its own symbols as a way of representing what the celebration is about. Halloween is generally associated with the occult and other mythical characters. Hence we see pumpkins or ghoul figures to commemorate the souls which are believed to be walking among the living on this special day. Christmas symbols, on the other hand, reflects images of universal feelings of positivity. Thus, we see images of Santa Claus to signify abundance and giving or the season’s favorite decoration, the mistletoe, to affect and spread good luck among family members. But the symbols for both holidays encapsulate in them a general sense of festivity. Halloween has always been associated as the festival of the dead. Hence, major activities during this season always include watching of horror movies, going to haunted attractions, reliving of folklores or scary urban legends, dressing up in extravagant costumes, and of course tric k or treating in the neighborhood. There are parties and programs organized practically here and there which obviously invite a large number of crowds. Parades of costumes, both contemporary and out of this world could also be witnessed.

Buying house is better than renting an apartment Term Paper

Buying house is better than renting an apartment - Term Paper Example Moreover, the residents do not have to worry about moving from one rented apartment to another, if the landlord decides to sell it or rent it out to someone else. Buying a house is also a favourable option due to the current economic situation. The dip in the property price has enabled many people to invest in a house, which is a far better option than renting an apartment. Keywords: buying, house, renting, apartment, property, investment, mortgage. Buying a House is the Winning Choice Did you know that you can purchase a house for $100k and have a mortgage of $900.00 dollars, which is less than average rent? According to World Time News Report, the national average two-bedroom fair market rent is â€Å"$928 a month† (2009). During the same year, the median sales price for those homes was $223,800; while the average sales price was $257,500, which is roughly about $800 per month. (Wyndham Capital Mortgage, Inc., 2009) This comparison of the average monthly rent and the average monthly instalment, in case of buying a house explains why buying a house is the winning choice. Buying a house is a long term investment; it gives financial security and a sense of ownership. Home ownership is not an easy task though; yet it is extremely beneficial in the long run in a number of ways. The current situation in real estate market gives one an optimum chance to invest in a house as, â€Å"home prices have fallen approximately 10% year-over-year in most markets...† (Lynn, 2009, p.5) Home ownership provides an investing advantage. Every payment one makes towards the mortgage, guarantees ownership. Any major updates or changes that one desires to make to the property will increase the value of the house. Under normal circumstances, home resale values tend to increase over the years. According to statistics provided by U.S Department of Housing and Urban Development, homes that were sold for $90k in 1990 are now worth about $150k; despite the fact that in 2005, th ose homes where at about $250k. (2011) It is a relatively easier way to buy a house by paying only 5% or as less as 3% down-payment of the total price. If a person has an FHA loan, which are secured and protected by the government, then buying a house becomes an easy process. This way, a person can get a slow-start and gain ownership. On the contrary, renting an apartment requires at least $3000 upfront- which is a lot of money! In other words, a house that is worth $100k can be purchased with $5000 down-payment and a monthly mortgage of about $950. However, the same house shall be rented for approximately $1200, exclusive of the initial deposit. Thus, buying a house is a viable option, particularly in the current economic situation and the state of the real estate market. Buying a house is considered as an opportunity to make profit out of the oscillating prices of the real estate market. A person can even get a chance to sell out the house if a potential buyer offers a higher pric e than the actual price at which it was bought. Thus, it proves to be a sound financial investment as contrasted with renting an apartment. Buying a house also gives a sense of financial security as one is aware of the fact that he/she shall have to pay the same amount of monthly mortgage for the nest thirty years. This is of high significance, as it allows the home owner to plan his savings and expenses, accordingly. On the

Overcoming Terrorist Issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Overcoming Terrorist Issues - Essay Example Thousands of people could have been affected and even killed if the terrorists had carried out their plan. The terrorists do not plan on only using physical weapons in public places. They have also decided to use biological terrorism by sending viruses into public areas. An example comes from the office of Tom Daschle, when the noted Anthrax virus was sent out in the mail. While nobody at the office was affected by this, it does help to underline the fear of a biological agent being released into society. Biological agents have been a known means of warfare and have been in existence for some time. For example, when the Cold War was in effect, both the United States and the Soviet Union had developed means of biological warfare. One that is currently largely feared to be used by the terrorists is the concept of botulism. Botulism, which is a very harsh form of food poisoning, could be spread among the agriculture of the United States and could thus cause widespread sickness and panic in the country (Medicine, n.d.). The terrorists could easily use both large scale and small scale concepts to spread this disease if they choose to. It has been widely admitted by the United States and many doctors that work in America that the country is not prepared for any large scale attack of biological warfare (Yungher, 2008). ... Since botulism is such an ardent fear and such a horrible disease, the only way to overcome it and to avoid a widespread panic would be to develop vaccinations against it (Center for Disease Control, n.d.). Furthermore, the vaccinations would have to be readily available and inexpensive for individuals to afford. Therefore, the government will have to put up its own money in order to invest in the wellness of its people. This will be important for assisting and protecting the Americans against any kind of biological attack, or biological warfare. Botulism is one of the most marked fears when it comes to biological terrorism, but other diseases are also causes for concern. Therefore, the government should fund a program that will focus on finding remedies for agents that might be used in a case of biological warfare. This department should also make sure that enough medicine is available if a wide crisis does ensue. Preparation for this kind of panic is one of the best ways to counter -act it. If the United States does not begin to prepare, it could have a very severe issue on its hands, and its population could be easily decimated and destroyed by sickness. 2. From a Jihad perspective, justify the choice of joining the cause. Explain your reasoning for supporting it. Why would one who was a Muslim wish to join the Jihad on America What would be the reasons for joining the cause There are several reasons why this concept is attractive to many people in Islamic countries. First, the concept of Jihad fits into the perspective of the Islamic religion. While most sects of Islam that take Jihad in its full seriousness are considered radicals, it can be

Counseling related to death Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Counseling related to death - Essay Example Obituaries are a very common way of honoring and paying tribute to one’s loved ones through the local newspaper. There have been deaths of famous people such as Diana, princess of Wales; popular actress Ellen Terry and many more of whom the media used the coverage to communicate and express moral messages. In addition to this, the media also writes auto biographies on famous personalities having terminal conditions like cancer and AIDS, near to death experiences etc. This causes the readers and viewers to look up to them as heroes. Another source of media is the movies and cinemas which depict different approaches to death. It engages the audiences with range of questions and answers regarding death. Some sections of the society feel visual depictions of death in some movies are gruesome. (Field, 2003) II. Grief counselors To cope up with the grief and sadness, professionals help is required sometimes. Grief counselors have a very important role to play in facilitating the nor mal coping process of a person. Grief counselors are trained to handle emotional situations and help people cope with death of loved ones. They are expected to be emotionally stable, matured, understanding and not have a fear of death. This profession can be disturbing in many ways but also fulfilling to see people come out of the difficult situations. They are also required to have genuine and legitimate interest in helping people come to terms with such complicated situations. They are also required to be good listeners and good communicators who are sensitive to people issues. The counselors are required to be very compassionate and strong minded to help others deal with their grief. (Grief Counseling, 2011) What type of tasks do they have to perform? These counselors are required to set out 4 tasks of mourning. The person mourning is required to accept the reality slowly, to work on emotions associated with the loss which could mean mentally and physically; to learn how to live life without the person for survival and the last task would be to help the person find a new place in another persons emotional life.( Bereavement counseling) The main goal of a grief counselor varies from person to person and the kind of loss. However, working with a typical client the goal of a counselor is to- Educate the person about the grieving process and ensure information is provided at every stage Listening to the client and offering non judgmental advice would provide additional support Creating a plan for the client to move on with their life Help the client bond with the deceased through letter writing, talking and performing rituals. (Grief Counselor, 2008) Find out how people are prepared for work that involves death? To become a grief counselor, emotional competence is required which is a key component of this profession. This profession also requires people to have emotions in control and being supportive. Many grief counselors are professionally qualified to handl e such situations and help people cope up with the loss. (Grief Counselor, 2008) How do they feel about the work and any aspect they find difficult? Most of the grief counselors choose this profession only if they are emotionally strong and are good listeners. This profession is a proven and an effective way of helping people to get through their emotional anxieties. In majority of the cases, the actions of the grief coun

Fatalistic Attitude Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Fatalistic Attitude - Essay Example Following September 11, American perceptions of people from Middle Eastern countries underwent a dramatic shift. Many citizens propelled by popular media and cultural and religious misunderstanding have demonized Arab-Americans, making it more difficult for them to function happily and safely within our society. The more narrow-minded have gone so far as to blame any person of hailing from this basic region of the world as anti-Christian, American-hating zealots who only come to the U.S. to undermine our freedoms and safety. While this is obviously not the case, as a result Arab-Americans, particularly those who actively practice the Muslim faith, are marginalized or sometimes outright despised by their fellow citizens. While this it is entirely inaccurate to blame all Arabs for the events of the past decade, many people from this cultural/ethnic background simply attempt to keep their heads down and wait for public sentiment to change. They do not believe that any amount of campaigning for cultural understanding or open exchange of ideas will affect a true change in their status within American society. Though over time it is likely that these prejudicial and inaccurate perceptions will no longer be equated with Arab-Americans as an absolute negative, it is the way in which fellow citizens interact with this subgroup on a daily basis which will most effectively alter the current attitudes and ideas existent in our culture. In addition to this, media coverage should be limited to factual relation without emphasis on ethnicity and instead promote cultural understanding which would also be an important factor in changing the overall perceptions of Arab-Americans in our society

Applying the Principles of Instructional Design in E-Learning Research Paper

Applying the Principles of Instructional Design in E-Learning - Research Paper Example Naidu (2006) defines e-learning as â€Å"the intentional use of networked information and communications technology in teaching and learning† (p. 1). E means electronic that signifies the use of the internet in educating students. Furthermore, learning is an act of acquiring knowledge through reading, studying, and applying the skills to measure a person’s understanding of the subject. However, the learning process is rooted on the experiences of students when they use technology. These experiences, whether positive or negative, affect their cognitive understanding of the lessons. Negative experiences develop apprehension in utilizing e-learning, so it is the duty of instructional designer to motivate these students. This paper aims to develop a storyline that will be the basis in applying the principles of instructional design. Storyline The educational system has changed the process of learning through the use of the internet. E-learning has been promoted because it i s more effective in incorporating knowledge on students than ordinary classroom instructions. The students utilize e-mail as a method of communicating with their professor. E-mail contains the link to the instructional materials provided by the professor, which informs students to study. Online learning also includes reviews, tests, and assignments. Students allot time for the application of their learning and professor encourages them to meet the deadline. This method is advantageous to students because they could access their study materials anywhere provided that there is an internet connection. Students living in a rural area are provided with broadband due to the difficulty in accessing their instructional materials. The common trend is that students have their own personal computers at home, while other students rent at the internet cafes. Flexibility is the main characteristic of utilizing information and technology; thus, students can study the course materials depending on their convenient time and place. It is expected that students will get high scores, but during the checking of assignments and tests, the teacher noticed that other students have low scores and only few got an average score. The teacher marvels at the poor performance of students because this reflects to the professor’s method of teaching. Thus, the professor began to study the problems of students in coping with the new method of learning. The teacher wants to find out the problem in his teaching method and begins to investigate on the negative experience that the students encountered. The questionnaires were sent via e-mail that contains the feedback and comments of students. Upon receiving the comments, the instructor discovers that the problems are focused on the instructional materials and the technical aspect. For the instructional materials, the students comment that the learning process was very boring or the materials are not interesting. Due to the monotonous feelin g of students, they never bothered to understand the concept in the text. The result is poor performance or low scores in their assignments and tests. Another comment received by the professor is the limited value of online information. The students complained that the materials are not new, which discourage them to study seriously. The professor wonders because this is in contrast with the study of Merrill (2002) that one of the principles of instruction pertains to the â€Å"

Fatalistic Attitude Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Fatalistic Attitude - Essay Example Following September 11, American perceptions of people from Middle Eastern countries underwent a dramatic shift. Many citizens propelled by popular media and cultural and religious misunderstanding have demonized Arab-Americans, making it more difficult for them to function happily and safely within our society. The more narrow-minded have gone so far as to blame any person of hailing from this basic region of the world as anti-Christian, American-hating zealots who only come to the U.S. to undermine our freedoms and safety. While this is obviously not the case, as a result Arab-Americans, particularly those who actively practice the Muslim faith, are marginalized or sometimes outright despised by their fellow citizens. While this it is entirely inaccurate to blame all Arabs for the events of the past decade, many people from this cultural/ethnic background simply attempt to keep their heads down and wait for public sentiment to change. They do not believe that any amount of campaigning for cultural understanding or open exchange of ideas will affect a true change in their status within American society. Though over time it is likely that these prejudicial and inaccurate perceptions will no longer be equated with Arab-Americans as an absolute negative, it is the way in which fellow citizens interact with this subgroup on a daily basis which will most effectively alter the current attitudes and ideas existent in our culture. In addition to this, media coverage should be limited to factual relation without emphasis on ethnicity and instead promote cultural understanding which would also be an important factor in changing the overall perceptions of Arab-Americans in our society

Economics - Economic Policy - Discuss and critically evaluate the Essay - 1

Economics - Economic Policy - Discuss and critically evaluate the rescue and stimulation packages by the UK Government since the start of the credit crunch in 2007 - Essay Example It is in this backdrop, we analyze the factors leading to the crisis and the efficacy of the rescue and stimulation packages introduced by the UK government to improve the situation. According to the Banking Guide it has been an episode of financial instability that was, arguably, the most serious since the 1930s. It states â€Å"The risks of negative equity (where mortgages are greater than the value of the property) became a reality and mortgage defaults hit record highs. Banks have lost the trust which is a pre-requisite to the efficient functioning of credit markets†. The table as given in Appendix I shows the fall in the world’s major equity markets since June 2007, and the cumulative change from 30-6-2007 to 10-10-2008 in the case of ‘FTSE All-share Index’ of the UK is negative by 40.9%. The habit of borrowing by the individuals and corporate bodies ingrained predominantly in the US culture at a staggering level which over the period of time made the financial structure in the country vulnerable. As a lighted  match to a  train of gunpowder, the subprime crisis acted as a trigger for the collapse of the leading banks. The cases of isolated bad debt in the banking system could be a normal phenomenon. However, when it has become impossible to quantify the bad debts in the nation as a whole, the system became victim to the crisis. This unprecedented phenomenon has arrested the flow of capital and liquidity, fundamental to the banking system. It is a vicious circle and the banking system has been clogged up completely due to growing suspicion among the market players. The bank finance locked up in subprime mortgages and housing development projects has paralyzed the system as a whole. The bailout plan was formulated under the Treasury Secretary, Henry Paulson, who h ad been the Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Goldman Sachs earlier.

The drug metabolism

The drug metabolism Introduction: If an exogenous microorganism enters the human body, this invokes the immune system to produce antibodies to come into contact with the foreign potentially pathogenic species and lead to its destruction. Although when drug molecules enter the human body this does not result in the synthesis of antibodies, due to their relatively small molecular weight. This is why the endogenous metabolism of drugs is vital in ensuring no or the minimum toxicity from a very broad spectrum of xenobiotics i.e. molecules/compounds which are found in a given organism, but are not synthesized naturally by it and or normally found within it. We can define drug metabolism as the enzymatically catalysed conversion of exogenous drug molecules into generally less active metabolites, which have a faster rate of clearance from the body. (While this is true for the majority of metabolites it is important to acknowledge that some metabolites actually are of higher toxicity than their precursors.) This occurs throu ghout nearly every organ (excluding ectodermal tissue) in the human body, but specifically the gastro-intestinal tract, lungs, kidneys and most importantly (and abundantly) the liver. While drug metabolism is essential in preventing a specific toxicity being produced from the accumulation of a drug(s), there are drawbacks that need to be addressed; a given drug may be a xenobiotic, but it is taken (or administered) in order to produce some degree of a therapeutic effect for its specifically targeted disease/pathology. Thus drug metabolism can inhibit the therapeutic benefit of a given molecule that ideally needs to be retained in a particular tissue of the body for a set period of time, to bring about a therapeutic effect. This is mainly due to the fact that a large number of drug molecules do mimic the structure of endogenous molecules close enough for the corresponding specific enzymes to target them as well as nonspecific enzymes which only identify certain molecular groups as opposed to the entire pharmacophore of a given drug. This unexpected drug metabolism could result in an undesired decrease in the bioavailability of a drug which would lead to increased d oses or dosage frequencies; this would cause a decrease in patient compliance which in the current medicinal environment is vital. Absorption and clearance: In the case of drug absorption into the desired tissues of the body generally a lipophilic character is required. This is because regardless of the site of drug uptake, it must pass through the cell membranes of targeted cells. These cell membranes are lipophilic in nature as they consist of a phospholipid bilayer. The inside of this bilayer is made up of hydrocarbon tails which are straight chain hydrocarbons which interact with each other via Van der Waal interactions and London forces. Thus drug molecules are designed to have sufficient lipophilic character that they can form these interactions with the lipid bilayers and pass into cells. Unfortunately this means that they are of limited hydrophilicity and either do not go into dissolution in an aqueous environment at all or do so at a very slow rate. As previously mentioned as this is unacceptable due to the accumulation of a given drug that would occur and produce toxicity, the drug must undergo a series of transformations that serve to increase the hydrophilic nature of the drug molecules. This predominately occurs in liver cells (hepatocytes) in processes known as phase I and phase II metabolism. Phase I and Phase II: Phase I metabolism is constituted of oxidative, reductive and hydrolytic reactions. These serve to produce primary metabolites that are susceptible to other reactions, which consist of the following conjugations; glucuronic acid, sulphate, amino acid, glutathione, water, acetyl, fatty acid and methyl. These occur via the corresponding conjugating agents and are known as phase II reactions. They aim to produce secondary metabolites that are far more hydrophilic nature than their precursor drug counterparts. This is with the addition of e.g. amine, carboxylic acid, hydroxyl groups as well as others, simply to increase the number of very electronegative atoms (with lone pairs of electrons) in a given species. Thus these metabolites can from a greater number of hydrogen bonds with the aqueous medium of the nephronal filtrate of the kidneys and be excreted at a faster rate via the passing of urine. The main constituent of phase I transformations are oxidative reactions, as they activate the selected species in generally one of two ways; hydroxylation and epoxidation. We can define oxidation as the gain of oxygen in a molecule or more precisely the loss of at least one electron from a species reacting with molecular oxygen. This is true for the two general mechanisms mentioned above as adding either a hydroxyl group or an epoxide ring to a molecule increases the number of oxygen atoms that the molecule contains. Firstly this increases the ability of the newly formed metabolite to act as a nucleophile due to the lone pair of electrons available for covalent bond formation (from the oxygen atom added to the molecule). Secondly it increases the chances of attack by an electrophilic species, because of the high electron density of the lone pair of electrons on the oxygen atom. Oxidation Properties and mechanisms of the Cytochrome P450 isoenzyme superfamily: The majority of these oxidative metabolic reactions are carried out by a superfamily of enzymes known as cytochrome P450, this can be displayed as: RH + O2 +NAD(P)H + H+ ? ROH + H2O + NAD(P)+ [1] The P450 enzymes catalyse the biodegradation of other exogenous species that are not drugs such as; organic solvents, ethanol (or consumed alcohol), anaesthetics, pesticides and carcinogens [1]; While endogenous molecules such as organic acids, steroids and prostaglandins are also biodegraded [1]. These enzymes are intracellular hemoproteins that function as external monooxygenases (mixed function oxidases) enzymes that serve to incorporate a single atom of molecular oxygen into a lipophilic xenobiotic substrate (i.e. a drug molecule), with the concomitant reduction of the other atom to water [1]. While internal monooxygenases take two reductive equivalents from the substrate in order to reduce one atom of molecular oxygen to water, this is normally done with an external reductant for external monooxygenases [1]. In eukaryotic cells the P450 enzymes consist of around half a thousand amino acid that compose their quaternary structure, these hemoproteins are membrane bound and have a heme prosthetic group at their centres. It is thought that the reason the enzymes can be bound to the cell membranes is the N-terminus of the enzymes tertiary structure has numerous hydrophobic amino acids (i.e. ones which contain aromatic/cyclic groups and have few very electronegative atoms such as oxygen and sulphur) that can interact with the lipid bilayer of the cells. Most hemoproteins in mammalian cells have nitrogen atom from the histidine residues imidazole group to form a ligand with the iron-heme prosthetic group. While for P450 enzymes this ligand is formed between the prosthetic group and the thiol group of a cysteine residue which is located near the C-terminus of the protein. This ligand activates the porphyrin ring (four conjugated pyrrole rings) to nucleophilic substitution by an oxygen atom. This is because the thiol group has an electron inductive effect due to its high electronegativity and so makes the carbon atom it is directly bonded to very electropositive and thus of greater electrophilicity/susceptibility of nucleophilic attack by the lone pair of electrons from the oxygen atom, so allowing oxidation to take place. The general process of the catalytic oxidative cycle of the cytochrome P450 enzyme superfamily: The substrate binds to a specific P450 enzyme and is followed by the first electron of the coenzyme NADPH via the electron transport chain. This is then followed by the binding of an oxygen atom that accepts the second electron from the coenzyme to produce a ferric peroxy anion [1]. The anion forms a ferric hydroperoxy complex via protonation, which in turn is heterolytically cleaved to form a Fe(V)=O species [1]. The newly formed highly electrophilic iron-oxo intermediate then attacks the substrate to form a hydroxylated metabolite. This product disassociates to allow another substrate to bind and the oxidation cycle to continue [1]. Schematic organisation of different cytochrome P450 systems. Upper row, left: bacterial system, right: mitochondrial system. Lower row, left: microsomal system, right: self-sufficient CYP102 (P450-BM3).[1] Aromatic hydroxylation: This leads on to the first major constituent of oxidative reactions; aromatic hydroxylation. This is simply the addition of at least one hydroxyl group to a given substrate although depending on the chemical environment that the product is formed in (e.g. pH) the hydrogen atom may be lost from the hydroxyl group. Aromatic compounds are first metabolized to the corresponding arene oxides; this is by electrophilic addition of the aromatic ring (of the previously mentioned iron-oxo intermediate) to produce either a carbocation species. This carbocation would be formed via the movement of an electron to the Fe(IV) species, giving a Fe(III) species bound to a the mentioned carbocation; or by formation of a radical which serves as a tetrahedral intermediate. The produced arene oxides then take on further transformations, which involve removal of the epoxide group that was added and introduction of a hydroxyl group and potentially another nucleophilic substitute. The simplest transformation is simply intramolecular rearrangement to for a para-arenol. Also hydration can take place in the presence of water and using the enzyme epoxide hydrolase. This causes opening of the epoxide ring and formation of a trans-3,4 arenediol. These primary metabolites can also undergo attack by large macromolecules which serve as nucleophiles. This is because the oxygen in the epoxide ring serves to make both the meta and para carbon positions electropositive and electrophilic in nature. Although any nucleophilic substitution that does go on to occur is at the para position, due to greater resonance stability of the formed secondary metabolite. Another example of aromatic hydroxylation would be the metabolism of isoliquiritigenin. It is a chalcone found in licorice roots and other plants [3] which has shown potent antitumor, phytoestrogenic activity and antioxidant properties. [3] Schematics for its metabolism can be shown below. [3] The metabolism of aromatic compounds that get hydroxylated can be slowed by using para-substituted aromatic compounds with either chlorine or a fluorine atom in the para position. While electron withdrawing groups deactivate the ring towards electrophilic substitution and activate it towards nucleophilic substitution; electron donating groups activate the ring towards electrophilic substitution and deactivate it towards nucleophilic substitution. While most ring deactivators go in the meta position, halogens direct ortho-para, i.e. the same as ring activators. This is because the halogens, especially fluorine and chlorine are very electronegative and thus have an electron inductive effect and decrease the electron density of the ring. This inductivity is far greater than the resonance stability that the halogen can give the ring thus deactivating it. Thus the addition of these halogen atoms decreases the nucleophilic nature of the ring and decreases the rate of metabolism. This can b e shown with the metabolism of the drug Diclofenac (shown below [4]) which is an anti-inflammatory drug as it is has a half-life of around one hour. While its derivative fenclofenac which has a para-substituted chlorine atom has a half-life twenty times longer. Alkene epoxidation: Epoxidation of alkenes occurs readily, because they are more volatile than the ? bonds of aromatic compounds, this simply involves the addition of an epoxide ring to a molecule in order for it to then undergo further transformations. For example the drug Coumarin has been used clinically at high dosages in humans in the treatment of high-protein lymphedemas (Jamal and Casley-Smith, 1989) and as an antineoplastic agent in the treatment of renal cell carcinoma (Marshall et al., 1994) and malignant melanoma (Marshall et al., 1989). [5] It and its 3/7-hydroxy isomers undergo epoxidation and then either glutathione conjugation or non-enzymatic intramolecular rearrangement [5] to secondary metabolites. This is shown schematically below. [5] It is also vitally important that environmental carcinogens are broken down via drug metabolism, in particular by the P450 enzymes. For example acrylonitrile (AN2) is widely used in the production of acrylic and modacrylic fibres, plastics, rubbers, resins, and as a chemical intermediate in the synthesis of many other industrial products (IARC,1999). Early epidemiological studies have suggested that AN may increase the incidence of lung, colon, and stomach cancers among exposed workers (Thiess and Fleig, 1978; Blair et al., 1998).[6] As a result P450 epoxidation is vital for preventing carcinogenic action of AN. While the metabolic basis of the acute toxicity of AN has not been fully elucidated, it is generally attributed to its metabolism to CEO (cyanoethylene oxide) and cyanide, and glutathione depletion. The primary target of acute toxicity of AN is the central nervous system due, at least partially, to the liberation of cyanide (Ahmed and Patel, 1981; Benz et al., 1997). [6] The below diagram illustrates how AN is metabolised by the P450 enzymes, specifically the CYP2E1 isoform.[6] Alcohol and aldehyde metabolism: Alcohols and aldehydes can be metabolized by cytochrome P450 enzymes to aldehydes and carboxylic acids respectively, but the majority of these transformations are catalysed by alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase. These enzymes are predominantly in the liver and require the coenzyme NAD+ or NADP+. General equations for these reactions are shown below. [Alcohol Dehydrogenase]Ez + RCH2OH + NAD + RCHO + NADH + H+ [Aldehyde Dehydrogenase]Ez + RCHO + NAD+ + H2O RCOOH + NADH + H+ Reduction: Cytochrome P450 enzymes are used along with reductases to metabolise drugs that have a carbon atom that is able to be reduced such as a carbonyl or an unsaturated carbon, a nitro group or a compound with an azo group. In addition upon reaction usually a specific stereoisomer is formed. The structure of the rest of the compounds often attribute to which stereoisomer is formed. Some stereoisomers can prove to be toxic. Carbonyl compounds: Carbonyl compounds are reduced by cytochrome P450 into alcohols and are NADP or NADPH dependent. The enzymes involved in the reduction of carbonyls are classified based upon their gene sequence, 3-D structure and cofactor dependence into superfamilies of; medium-chain dehydrogenases/reductases, aldo-keto reductases, short-chain dehydrogenases/reductases which include carbonyl reductases. The majority of these enzymes are present in the cytosol however there are some that are found in the microsomes and mitochondria. Short-chain dehydrogenases/reductases (SDRs) and aldo-keto reductases (AKR) are the most common enzymes used in drug metabolism. These enzymes also exhibit high specificity for the drugs that they reduce. Saturated ketones reduced to alcohols whilst in an unsaturated ketone both the ketone group and the double bonds are both reduced. Steroidal drugs undergo oxidoreduction of the hydroxy/keto group at C17[7]. This makes the compound more water soluble and hence easier to be excreted. Some metabolising enzymes behave differently and undergo different types of reactions when in different cells. An example is carbonyl reductases within tumour cells and normal cells. These have become a target of new drugs such as oracin in the treatment of breast cancer [9]. The enzymes within the cancer cells metabolise oracin and doxorubin more effectively than in normal cells hence reducing the efficacy of the cytostatic effect of the drugs. Some carbonyl compounds however do not undergo reduction via the cytochrome P450 pathway but are rather reduced by other pathways including the aldo-keto reductases (AKR). An example is a drug containing a 1,3-diketone derivative S-1360 which upon reduction produces a key metabolite HP1 which constitutes a major clearance pathway[9]. Nitrogen compounds: The reduction of nitrogen containing compounds are reduced to amines in order to aid excretion as amines are more water soluble than their nitro groups. Azo compounds on the other hand may be metabolised within the body to produce the active drug as opposed to the precursor which may be formulated to get pass the first pass effect or the hydrophilic barrier in order to enter their target cells. The azo group provides 2 compounds with amine groups which can be further metabolised like any other amine. Both of these functional groups are both reduced by cytochrome P450 enzymes and are NADPH dependent. Hydrolysis: This is part of the Phase I metabolism pathway. The metabolites produced are all susceptible to Phase II conjugation and thus being excreted after the conjugation. The functional groups of the drugs that are metabolised by hydrolysis include esters and amides, which produce carboxylic acids, alcohols and amines. Esters are hydrolysed quicker than amides in vivo. Unlike oxidation and reduction the reactions are typically not carried out by the cytochrome P450 system. The most significant enzymes involved in the hydrolysis of the esters and amides are carboxylesterases and arylesterases, cholinesterases and serine endopeptidases. The active site of the enzymes involved may be stereospecific as to which enantiomer of the drug is metabolised and in addition which enantiomer of the drug is generated. Some of these products are toxic and dangerous to the body. Amino acid reactions Several phase I reactions produce a carboxylic acid metabolite. Xenobiotic carboxylic acids can be metabolised before elimination by amino acid conjugation. Glycine; the most common conjugating amino acid forms ionic conjugates that are water soluble with aromatic, arylaliphatic and heterocyclic carboxylic acids. In these reactions, first the xenobiotic carboxylic acid is activated by ATP to form the AMP ester by the enzyme acyl synthetase. Then the AMP ester is converted to a Coenzyme-A thioester. Next, an amide or peptide bond is formed between the thioester and the amino group of glycine. The latter reaction is mediated by the enzyme acyl transferase. These reactions are shown in figure 1. The amino acid conjugate produced is ionic and therefore water soluble, hence it is easily eliminated in the urine and bile. (1) Glutathione conjugation Glutathione is a protective compound in the body that removes potentially toxic electrophilic compounds and xenobiotics. Drugs are metabolised by phase I reactions to form strong elecrophiles that can react with glutathione to form conjugates that are not toxic. This phase II reaction differs from others since electrophiles are subject to conjugations rather than nucleophiles. The nucleophilic thiol group on the glutathione compound (figure 2) attacks elecrophiles (electrophilic carbons with leaving groups). Compounds that can be conjugated to give thioether conjugates of glutathione: Epoxides Haloalkanes Nitroalkanes Alkenes Aromatic halo- and nitro- compounds Glutathione-S-transferases (GST) are enzymes which catalyse the reactions above. There are thirteen different human GST subunits which have been identified and they belong to five different classes. They are located in the cytosol of the liver, kidney and gut. The enzyme GST is thought to increase the ionisation of the thiol group of glutathione, leading to an increase in its nucleophilicity towards electrophiles. (1)(2) Once formed, GSH conjugates may be excreted directly or more often they are further metabolised to N-acetylcysteine conjugates which can then be excreted via phase III metabolism. Phase III Metabolism further modification and excretion Before being excreted in the urine, most xenobiotics are made less toxic and more water soluble as polarity increases by metabolising enzymes in phase II reactions. In phase III metabolism water soluble compounds are excreted in the urine. However, some drug compounds are not metabolised and therefore are not excreted. These non-metabolised compounds are readily reabsorbed from the urine through the renal tubular membranes and into the plasma to be recirculated. (3) Some xenobiotic conjugates from phase II reactions are further metabolised during phase III metabolism reactions. Glutathione-S conjugates may be metabolised further by hydrolysis of the glutathione conjugate (GSR) at the y-glutamyl bond of the glutamate residues by y -glutamyl transferase (y -GT) followed by hydrolysis of glycine residues resulting in a cysteine conjugate containing a free amino group of the cysteine residue. This then undergoes N-acetylation to form mercapturic acid. The final products; mercapturic acids are S-derivatives of N-acetylcysteine synthesised from glutathione (figure 4). (1)(2) First-pass Metabolism The metabolism of many drugs is dependent on the route of administation therefore orally administered drugs are subject to first pass metabolism and consequently their bioavailablity is reduced. This occurs as a result of the orally administered drugs entering the systemic circulation via the hepatic portal vein, so the drug is exposed to the intestinal wall and the liver, which is thought to be the main site of first-pass metabolism of orally administered drugs. Other possible sites are the gastrointestinal tract, blood, vascular endothelium and lungs. First-pass Metabolism in the Liver During first-pass metabolism, the cytochrome P450 enzymes family represent the most significant of the hepatic enzymes. It has been estimated that the endoplasmic reticulum of the liver contains approximately 25 000 nmol of cytochrome P450. Although there are several human P450 subfamilies and multiple individual isozymes within subfamilies, only five P450 enzymes are shown to be significant for the process of first-pass metabolism: CYP1A2 CYP2C9 CYP2C19 CYP2D6 CYP3A4 Cytochrome P450 drug substrates are commonly highly extracted during first-pass metabolism. Examples of these drugs are; morphine, verapamil, propranolol, midazolam, lidocaine. Drugs that are highly extracted such as lidocaine have a low bioavailability when taken orally therefore they are not administered orally. CYP3A4 is the most commonly active isozyme against P450 drug substrates. This is possibly due to the enzymes abundance and broad substrate specificity. Highly extracted substrates for conjugative, reductive or non-P450 oxidative enzymes are less common. These include labetalol, morphine, terbutaline, isoproterenol and pentoxifylline. The gut is also an important organ involved in pre-systemic metabolism. Metabolism here for drugs with high first-pass metabolism leads to a reduced bioavailability. Some metabolizing enzymes such as CYP3A4 is found at a higher level in enterocytes than in the liver. Recent findings state that gut wall metabolism is the major cause of low bioavailability of certain drugs. Intestinal First-pass Metabolism Various drug metabolizing enzymes found in the liver are also found within the epithelium of the gastrointestinal tract. These include cytochromes P450, glucuronosyl transferases, sulfotransferases, N-acetyl transferase, glutathione S-transferases, esterases, epoxide hydrolase and alcohol dehydrogenase. The small intestine contains high amounts of three cytochrome P450 enzymes; CYP3A, CYP2D6 and CYP2C. Unlike the liver which has a relatively uniform distribution of P450enzymes, the distribution of P450 enzymes is not uniform along the small intestine and villi. Proximal mucosal P450 content is normally higher than distal mucosa P450 content. Therefore it has been established that protein level and catalytic activity of drug-metabolizing enzymes in the small intestine are generally lower than those in the liver. This has been demonstrated by comparison of cytochrome P450 enzymes in the liver and the small intestine. The extent of first-pass metabolism can result from interindividual variability: Genetic variation Induction or inhibition of metabolic enzymes Food increases liver blood flow. This can increase the bioavailablity of some drugs by increasing the amount of drug presented to the liver to an amount that is above the threshold for complete hepatic extraction Drugs that increase liver blood flow (similar effects to food) and drugs that reduce liver blood flow Non- linear first pass kinetics, i.e. dose Liver disease increases the bioavailability of some drugs with extensive first-pass metabolism (4) To avoid first pass metabolism a drug can be administered sublingual and buccal routes. These routes lead to drugs being absorbed by the oral mucosa. During sublingual administration the drug is put under the tongue where it dissolves in salivary secretions. An example of a sublingual drug is nitroglycerine. During buccal administration the drug is positioned between the teeth and the mucous membrane of the cheek. Both of these routes avoid destruction by the GI fluids and first pass effect of the liver. Drugs may also be administered via other routes to avoid first-pass metabolism, for example; rectal, inhalation, transdermal, intravenous. (5) Prodrugs Many drugs require metabolic activation in order to exert their pharmacological action; these are described as pro-drugs. There are two types; type I and type II which has subtypes A and B dependent on the site of activation. Type I prodrugs are converted intracellularly at the target cells (A) or at tissues that usually metabolise compounds (B). An example of a type IA prodrug is Zidovudine and type IB prodrug is captopril. Metabolic activation of type I prodrugs is usually linked to phase I metabolic enzymes. Type II prodrugs are converted extracellularly in GI fluids (A) or in the systemic circulation (B). An example of a type IIA prodrug is sulfasalazine and type IIB prodrug is fosphenytoin. Type II prodrugs are very popular as they are involved in overcoming bioavailability problems, which are commonly experienced with many drugs, by improving permeability and reducing the first pass effect. (6) Type I Prodrugs are used to target a drug to its specific site of action; an example of this is the drug used in Parkinsons disease levodopa; the inactive form of the drug which is metabolised in the neurone by the enzyme dopa decarboxylase to the active form; dopamine. Dopamine does not cross the blood-brain barrier so it is given as the levodopa precursor which is lipophilic so it can cross the barrier and then metabolized in vivo to dopamine. (7) Another example of the use of prodrugs is the pharmacological activation of a type II prodrug Azathioprine to mercaptopurine which is a chemotherapeutic agent used in the treatment of leukaemia. When mercaptopurine is administered, its clinical usefulness is restricted because of its rapid biotransformation by xanthine oxidase to an inactive metabolite 6-thiouric acid. Therefore larger doses have to be given as it has a low bioavailability, this leads to toxicity. By administering mercaptopurine as its cysteine conjugate, the limitations can be overcome. This ionic form of the pro-drug conjugate is selectively taken up by the renal organic anion transport system. The kidney B-lyase enzyme system then cleaves the prodrug conjugate to give the active mercaptopurine in the kidney (figure 5). (8)(9) To conclude, prodrugs can be metabolised in different ways to form the active drug. They can be used to target specific sites, improve absorption and improve oral delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs. They can also be used to avoid first pass metabolism in drugs with high first pass extraction and reduce toxicity. (6) Factors affecting metabolism There are several factors that can affect drug metabolism. Age, sex, inducers and inhibitors are some of which can effect drug metabolism which are mentioned below. How does age affect drug metabolism: There are many physiological changes that occur with ageing. The changes have the potential to affect both drug disposition and metabolism. Drug metabolism is mainly functioned by the liver, its size, blood perfusion and synthetic capacity for proteins which all determine the rate of hepatic drug elimination[5]. Paediatric population Phase one and phase two metabolic pathways may not be active at birth due to maturational changes. The paediatric population and elderly population have differences in their capacity to metabolise a drug which can therefore produce a lower or higher plasma concentration of active substances compared with adults depending on the enzyme system used. There are examples of metabolites produced by therapeutic agents in children that are not usually seen in adults. The metabolites produced maybe the reason for some of the efficacy and or toxicity visible with drug administration in children. An example is: caffeine production in a neonate receiving Theophylline. Other therapeutic agents which show changes in metabolite production in children are; Valproic acid, paracetamol, Chloramphenicol, Cimetidine Salicylamide. In most cases the differences that occur between children and adults are in the ratios of the metabolites relative to the parent drug rather than in new metabolites individual to the paediatric population with some exceptions. The paediatric population shows the same set of enzymes as the adult population. (1) In general age related changes in drug metabolism have been shown to occur due to a consequence of diminished enzyme activities within the elderly human liver due to the size of the liver decreasing and hepatic blood flow decreasing. With age the liver blood flow is generally reduced by about 20-30% and there is a decrease in liver size by about (17-36%). Currently there is no clear pattern; however there are two general trends that influence the rate of metabolism. One trend is that drugs that are undergoing hepatic microsomal oxidation are more likely to be metabolised slowly in the elderly and those which are conjugated are not likely to be influence by the age factor. Secondly, drugs that have high hepatic clearance, extraction ratios example-Chlormethiazole, and Labetalol and undergo extensive first pass metabolism whilst oral absorption may show a large increase in bioavailability in the elderly. Elderly population In general in the elderly population hepatic blood flow decreases up to 40% and there can be a considerable reduction in the amount of drug reaching the liver per unit. Studies have shown that the effect of ageing on liver enzymes with particular drug